^^^^^^HHI V A r i*,j'i•.«»t-, I^^^^^^^^^^^^^H f r . CJaily) • Weekly) áfftAMkí ¿*M IrlíMto&í^rkíM* Cable« :— "OBSERVER COLOMBO." Codes :— A.B.C. 5th Edit.) BENTLEY'S AND PRIVATE. LONDON OFFICE: U SALISBURY COURT, FLEET STREET, LONDON. E.C . / f£ Numb ECTORY ; K. 116. ,(? 12. r tSBSARt NEW YORK BOT ANICAL GARDEN   ADVEaTIMEMJJNT. A. BAUR, The CEYLON MANURE WORKS. Office: 5, Prince Street, Fort. WORKS AT KELANIYA. MANURES FOR ALL CROPS. COCONUT FERTILISERS A SPECIALITY. TRIED OUT ON OWN ESTA TES. Mixtures for Special Soil Conditions. Enquiries Solicited. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL, FERGUSON'S "ALL ABOUT THE COCONUT PALM." (COCOS NUCÍFERA.) TREA TING OF THE HISTORY AND CUL TIV A TION. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE PALM. - - AND ABOUT ITS COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS. - . COM FILED BY THE LATH J. FERGUSON, C.M.G., Editor- "Ceylon Ohserver" mid " Tropical Agriculturist." FIFTH EDITION REVISED & REARRANGED BY C. DRIEBRRG, H.A.. F.H.A.S., (Editor, "Ceylon Observer.") late of the Department of Agriculture. Ceylon. Author of "A Primer of Tropical Agriculture," "Lessons in Agriculture," ^'f-tf.tl.mm MHVV VOKC ~ «UTAMCAL [Al.I RIGHTS RESER VED.?**1 '"2 8 '' COLOMBO : 'C'EYI.UX OKSW.YKI! '" n.ES.S. 1923. QU3Q pf f 1 m$ m HÉÜf 1iL» • ... . ^SBg^ '-'- "•«»__ të •êpm $Ê$m To face fase S  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 9 ten years, and then the Ceylonese began to embark upon the cultiva- tion, and in the Western and North-West Provinces especially they brought many thousands of acres of jungle under cultivation, more especially along the valley of the Mahaoya between Negombo and Polgahwela, since 1866, and later in the Chilaw Puttalam district and in the Eastern Province. This movement was a result of the grow- ing prosperity of the people through the money circulated by the coffee enterprise from 1850 onwards, and of the Government unlocking their low-country reserves of Crown land. Since then further extension has taken place in all parts of the Island, and districts where a low rainfall makes dry-farming com- pulsory are being exploited. Originally coconut cultivation was confined to the coast and to sea level under the impression that proximity to the sea was a sine qua non ; but this theory having been exploded, we now find it carried on round Kandy, Peradeniya, Gampola, the Dumbara valley, Mátale, and up to Badulla 100 miles from, and 2,000 feet above, the sea. At higher elevations the nuts tend to become small. Though the palm will grow even at 4,000 feet elevation it does not fruit at such high altitudes. FACTS AND FIGURES FROM OFFICIAL SOURCES, The area under coconuts is about 900,000 acres. The chief coconut-growing districts are Colombo, Henaratgoda, Y eyangoda, Negombo, Chilaw, Puttalam, Kurunegala, Galle, Matara, Batticaloa and Jaffna. Along the western and southei'ii coast line, the trees aie chiefly used for the production of toddy to be supplied to arrack distilleries. The cost of opening land for coconuts may be said to be about Rs. 600 per acre—the expenditure being spread over ten years—- but the bulk of it would be inclined during the first three years. The necessary labour may be reckoned, at a cooly for four or five acres, at 40 to 75 cents a head. Picking is generally done by contract at about 50 cents per 1,000 nuts. Advances are made up to 50 per cent of the value of estates and interest recovered at 8 to 10 percent. The purchase period i* iO COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. put at ten to twelve years. A good coconut estate in ftill bearing will be worth Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 1,200 per acre. The yield per tree per annum may vary on estates from 30 to 80 nuts, with an average of 45. The number of trees per acre runs from 60 to 80. The price per 1,000 nuts, under nominal circumstances, may be said to be between Rs. 50 and Rs. 75. In 1922 the number of coconuts exported was 22,317,747, valued at Rs. 1,825,226, of which nearly 90 per cent went to the United Kingdom. The number of nuts required for a candy (5 cwt. or 560 lb ) varies from i)00 to 1,500. Copra is often prepared by contract, the contractor being paid Rs. 1 50 per 1,000 dried nuts supplied to him in husk- It is generally sorted into three grades, the usual percentages being 95 percent of No- 1, 4 per cent of No. 2, and 1 per cent of No. 3. The cost of production of a candy varies form Rs. 25 to Rs. 40. The price varies considerably and has touched Rs. 120 per candy, but normally is Rs. 60 to Rs. 80. In 1922 the export of copra was 1,686,589 cwt., valued at Rs. 28,804,064, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Germany, Holland, Italy and Norway taking the largest percentages. A candy (5 cwt.) of copra produces alxnit 3 owt. of oil. The price of oil is about double that of copra. Lootlly-inade oil usually contains li to 2 per cent of fatty acid. The average shippers' buying price» of oil lie between Rs. 500 and Rs. 600 per ton. The unit of shipment i.-, the shipping ton, which is 14 to 15 cwt. The bulk of the oil (55 per cent) finds its way to ths» United Kingdom—Germany, Egypt and Norway, too, taking a fairly large quantity. The poonac, or a cake left after the removal of the oil from copra, is largely used locally as cattle food. In 1922, 115,479 cwt. valued at Rs. 766,279 were exported. The quantity of oil exported in 1922 was 554,626 cwt, valued at Rs. 14,924,985. In the manufacture of desiccated nut, 1,000 nuts should yield from 350 to 400 lb. The cost of production is about 25 cents, per lb. In 1922, 786,215 lb., valued at Rs. 20,159,183, were shipped, the bulk g ing to the United States of Amercia (36 per cent) and the COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 11 United Kingdom (40 per cent). The local prioe varies between 25 and 50 cents per lb. In tho manufacture of arrack it has been found that a tree prodnces from 6 to 12 drams of toddy per diy, the fermented product containing from 4 to 8 per cent alcohol. The cost price of toddy may be put at 30 cents, per gallon : it i.s retailed in taverns at from two to four times this value. In native stills 7 gallons of toddy give 1 oz. of arrack. The distillers' cost of production is Rs. 250 to Ri. 350 per leaguer of 150 gallons. The retail price of arrack is Rs. 10 to Rs. 16 per gallon. In 1921 the consumption of arrack in the colony was about 850,000 gallons and of toddy about 4,500,000 gallons. Coir fibre, both "bristle"and ' mattress," is both hand and machine extracted. A good deal is used locally, but in 1922 the totaj quantity of fibre exported as such or in the form of yarn and rope was valued at over 3j million rupees, the United Kingdom, Belgium, Germany and Japan being the chief importers. While the price of bristle fibre is in the neighbourhood of Rs 10 per cwt., that of mattress fibre is about a fifth of that value. SCIENTIFIC DA T A. T H E STEM. The stem of the coconut, except on rare occasions, is an un- branchod cylindrical column, which sometimes reaches a height of from 80 to 100 feet, with a diameter sometimes three feet or even less at the base. It is thus very clear that the stem needs great strength and elasticity to enable it to bear the weight of the crown of leaves and bunches of fruit it carries at the apex, and stand the force of.strong winds which are so common on the seashore where the palm is usually found. In monocotyledons, Hke the coconut, the cambium cells do not fol-m a ring between the wood and the bark as we find it in rubber, since the fibro-vascular bundles never coalesce, but are irregularly scattered through the cellular system of the stem. They are generally crowded towards the circumference, which consequently becomes much harder than the centre, especially in woody monocotyledons 12 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. like the coconut. From the mode of development of the fibro-vascular bundles, and the direction which they take in the stem, the trunk of woody monocotyledons does not usually increase in diameter beyond a certain point, and the cylindrical stems are nearly a? thick at the top as at the base, A section of the stem shows the distribution of the fibro-vascular bundles throughout the ground tissue which is made up of cells, the whole enclosed in a strong fibrous cortex or false bark. So that from its structure the stem is capable of standing great strain and bending to the force of the wind without brexking, while the root system, with its innumerable spreading branches, gives the tree such a firm grip of the soil that it is only under exceptional circumstances that it gets blown flat. It is through the vessels in the bundles, distributed throughout the stem in association with fibres, that water with mineral plant food in solution taken up by the roots travels up to the leaves and is tliere converted into organic matter. THE ROOT. The coconut palm, like all monocotyledons, has no tap-root. The base of the stem, where it enters the ground, is usually conical and embedded to a depth of 2 or 3 feet. Its surface below, and for some distance above ground is covered with the butt-ends of roots, under half-an-inch in diameter, radiating from the tree in every direc- tion. The normal length of the roots of full-grown tre3s varies from 15 to 25 feet, according as the soil is heavy or light. Sometimes they extend to well over 30 feet iu poor, shallow soils. The old woody roots contain a central pith whicli tends to give them great strength and elasticity. The underground part of the stem carries from 4,000 to 8,000 roots which may be either unbrauched, or develop 10 to 20 branches which rarely exceed three feet in length, Both the primary and secondarj' roots also bear numerous fine branches, whicli may again give rise to still finer branches. The finest roots last for but a short time. In heavy soils a larger root system is formed than in light ones, though in the latter the roots extend to a greater length. The roots of the coconut are protected along their length by an ex- ternal covering, or jacket, which adds to their strength and thus gives stability to the tree. When parts of old roots die they are generally j w§ SStiTOj ÄSsr^*?  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 13 replaced by fresh growths from the living parts of the same roots. The direction of the primary roots is mainly horizontal. Some may go down to a depth of about three feet or so, but most are found at depths varying from 6 to 18 inches, according to the nature of the soil. Roots will not grow any depth into water or a water-logged soil, while they cannot thrive in a very dry one : hence their tendency to grow downwards in a sandy soil. The best conditions for growth are a deep soil, with a deep water table, and the surface soil not allowed to become too dry. Surface cultivation is, therefore, to be commended, but not deep enough to destroy too many roots. The tip of the root will be found to terminate in a tough structure called the root-cap, which serves to protect the growing point from injury. Just behind this is a region made up of a delicate structure, generally light in colour, through which water and soluble plant food are absorbed, for the coconut has no root-hairs like dicotyledons such as the mango and jak. When root growth is checked by drought this region almost disappears by encroachment of the tough external coat which invests the rest of the root. On old coconut roots are often seen numerous, small, white root-like structures which are specialized roots adapted for breathing purposes. These breathing organs allow air to pass into the internal tissues of old roots which would otherwise die for want of air. If a root be cut through, the end is promptly sealed up by a gummy substance, and no absorption takes place through it. The roots of the coconut freely absorb strong solutions of common salt without injury. The ordinary process of absorption is carried on most rapidly in the forenoon, less so in the afternoon, and very slowly at night. The tree does not appear to store up any great quantity of water, which passes freely out through the leaves. Anything, therefore, which interferes with evaporation from the leaves, will check absorption through the roots. The finer roots appear to take up more water than the large ones. A calculation based only on the activity of the main roots showed that a tree takes up about six gallons a clay ; but, by a determi- nation of the evaporation from the leaves, this must be far below the actual figure. Investigations have shown that the average growth of roots is rather more than three feet per annum, 14 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. THE LEAF. The water taken up by the cells of the absorbent region of the roots travels from cell to cell into the vessels that are found in the central vascular bundles along which it ascends till it reaches the stem nnd finally the leaves. There, travelling along the midrib and veins aud through the leaf tissue, it finds its way out by the stomata. As a result of this evaporation (transpiration) there is left in the leaves a residue consisting of the mineral (including nitrogenous) food of the tree derived from the soil. The stomata are small openings in the epidermis of the leaf and, in the coconut, occur only on the under sur- face. Provided the tree is well supplied with moisture the stomata are full open in the daytime when the sun shines. If not well supplied, they narrow down as the water in the leaves decrease, so as to reduce transpiration. At night they are closed. Transpiration will be most active if the roots supply water as fast as it is evaporated ; and, asa result, the tree will get the maximum of plant food from the soil. About 98 per cent of the water evaporated passes out through the stomata of the leaves ; but transpiration is also regulated by a strand of tissue which runs along the sides of the midrib on each half of the leaf blade, and acts like a hinge. When the leaflets are well stored with water, the cells of the hinge, which are colourless and delicate, become turgid or swollen and cause each side of the leaflet to expand. With a poor supply of water the cells of the hinge become flaccid or slack, the two parts of the leaf blade collapse and present a smaller surface to the sun, so that there is less evaporation. Transpiration is increased by light, warmth, a dry atmosphere as well as by wind. It is hindered by darkness, cold, a moist condition and a still atmosphere. The most important factor influencing tanspira- tion is light, and for this reason the tree must be fully exposed to it. Encroaching shade from othei' trees, too closely planted palms, high weeds, etc., is objectionable. In the hottest part of the day, or during drought, the closing down of the two sides of the leaflets is an indication that the quantity of water taken up by the roots is less than what is needed for transpiration, which is, therefore, reduced by the automatic action of the hinge lessening the surface of the leaflets expose 1 to the sun. WThat ultimately regulates the amount of water transpired is the amount that can reach the leaves. (The leaf can also, when necessary, draw upon the moisture within the plant, COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 15- iiiul the deficit will be made up by water taken up by the roots at night when transpiration is at a minimum.) In the mornings and evenings water does not avaporate as f¡ist as it is brought in and the leaflets tend to spread out: so in thn evening their width will be as great as in the early morning, showing that any shortage of water Hxporicnced during the day has bet-n made up. It has been found that, under normal conditions, a leaflet eva- porates about 10"8 grams of water in a day. Allowing 150 leaflets- per frond and 25 fronds to the tree, the whole tree will evaporate 40 5 litres or about 9 gallons per day, through its leaflets. But taking the- very lowest record loss, viz., 28 litres por day, the annual transpi- ration per tree would be represen teil by 10,220 litres, equivalent t o about 2,250 gallons. The plant fo3e none at all. When the inflorescence YOUNG UNOPENED FEMALE FLOWER. .- FULLY Or£NED FEMALE FLOWER. To face page 16 %•_ COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 17 opens, the female flowers are seen as more or less spherical bodies, somewhat resembling nuts, and hence the idea has arisen that the flower has been fertilised and the nut formed, before the inflorescence opens, As will be evident later, that conception is quite erroneous. The female flower, like the mile, has six floral leaves, but they are much larger and thicker. When the inflorescence opens, these floral leaves are tightly folded over the inner part of the flower and com- pletely hide it. They are so tightly wrapped over that the outside, at first glance, appears to be continuous, and that is the reason why the female flower has been thought to bo the fruit. Inside the floral leaves is an oval body composed chiefly of the tissue which will develop into the husk of the fruit, while the embryo coconut is a minute structure at the very base of this. After the inflorescence opens, but before fertilisation has taken place, this mass of tissue continually increases in size and ultimately forces apart the floral leaves, disclosing only its rounded upper surface which is surmounted by a white nipple. This nipple is marked by throe equidistant grooves which meet at its apex and thus divide it into three triangular sections. When the female flower is ripe, these three segments separate and stand erect as three teeth, exposing the stigmatic surface on which the pollen must fall in order that the flower may be fertilised. These three teeth constitute the stigma. It is impossible for fertilisation to occur before the stigma is ripe, and that does not happen until long after the opening of the in- florescence. The stigma ultimately turns brown and the tissues round it collapse, forming a small, black, more or less circular area containing three shrivelled teeth, at the apex of the young fruit. The six floral leaves do not increase much in size, but form the whoi'l of small "leaves" at the base of the fruit. ' Pollination" is the application of the pollen to the stigma. As the pollen and the stigma are in separate flowers, male and female res- pectively, in the case of the coconut palm, there must be a transfer of pollen by some means or other from the male flower to the female. Now, when the coconut inflorescene expands, the male flowers open first. (This, by the way, is not peculiar to the cocount, but is quite a common phenomenon in palms. ) The inflorescence is then, if we consider the ripe flowers only, entirely male, and it continues entirely male until all the male flowers have opened and fallen off. This male phase may last for from three and a half to five weeks, n 18 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. After all the male flowers have fallen, a period of from two to five days elapses before the female flowers begin to open. These then begin to open at the rate of two or three per day, and during this time the inflorescence is entirely female. The duration of the female phase depends upon the number of female flowers : at Peradeniya, it lasted for from me to seven days. Each female flower is receptive for about twenty-four hours (or less) ; after twenty-four hours the stigma begins to turn brown. It will be seen from the above how erroneous was the idea that the female flowers were fertilised before the inflorescence opened. Not only is that impossible, but fertilisation cannot occur until three or four weeks after the opening of the inflorescence. Moreover, it follows from the above data, that a female flower cannot be fertilised with pollen from a male flower of the same inflorescence, for all the male flowers have disappeared before the female flowers open. Whence then is the pollen which fertilises the female flower derived? Well, the coconut, as is common knowledge, produces inflorescences in continuous succession, and if they appear rapidly enough, or if the flower- ing period of each is sufficiently prolonged, it may happen that, before one inflorescence has finished flowering, tbe next may have begun, and in that case it is possible that the female flowers of the first may be pollinated from the male flowers of the second. In other words, the flowering periods of successive inflorescences may overlap, and then the female flowers may be fertilised with pollen from another inflorescence on the same tree. Overlapping was found three times during the year. It may be more frequent in the low country. Failing this overlapping, pollination can only be effected by pollen from another tree. This last point suggests interesting possibilities. Suppose, for in- stance, that in a given plantation, none of the inflorescences "overlapped," ar.d that all the trees produced their inflorescences at the same time. There would then be no pollen available when required ' It is evident that one condition for efficient pollination is that the different trees should produce inflorescences at different times, not all at the same time. How far is this fulfilled ? Do trees of the same variety in the same environment tend to flower at the same time ? Do trees of different varieties tend to flower at different times? I s a plantation of mixed varieties more prolific than one of one variety only ? How is the pollen conveyed from tbe male to the female flower 1 The pollen of the coconut consists of simple spherical grains without f. ' \ «'S. COCONUT PALM GROWN FROM A GREEN XUT, /'» face fragt / S .  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 19 any special adaptations, and the structure of the male flower is, on the whole, equally simple. But the male flower possesses three nectaries at the bases of the teeth which crown the central column, and the se- cretion of these nectaries undoubtedly attracts insects. The stigma of the female flower also furnishes ' nectar," so that the visits of the in- sects to both male and female flowers are assured. Bees and hornets appear to be the most frequent visitors, but further observations are required on this point. In considering the potential insect visitors to flowers in the Tro- pics one has always to take into consideration the ubiquitous ant. At first sight it seems posssible that this insect may take part in the conveyance of pollen from the male to the female flower, especially when the periods of the inflorescences overlap. In that case they might convey pollen from one inflorescence to another on the same tree. But it is improbable that they should convey pollen from one tree to another, because the journeys of this species, as a rule, do not extend to two trees. There is, however, a special provision on the female flower of the coconut which more or less effectually excludes ants from the work of pollination. The region below the stigma, almost the whole of the area which is exposed when the female flower opens, bears a large number of pores. When the flower is ripe these exude a quantity of moisture which, at least iu fine weather, forms a ring of liquid round the stigma and prevents the ants reaching the latter. It is not uncommon to see a crowd of black ants congregated round the edge of this ring. It is probable that, as is usual in cases of this kind, the liquid contains some sugar, so that the ants obtain what they want without robbing the stigma. In any case, it keeps the ants away from the stigma. The position of these water pores can be clearly seen on the young fruit- where they are indicated by small whitish spots. These spots owe their colour to masses of minute crystals which are deposited by the liquid. As far as insect visitors are concerned, therefore, pollination effected by bees and hornets. But from the structure of the flowers it is most probable that the wind is also responsible for the trans- ference of pollen, to a great extent. As has already been stated the male flowers far outnumber the females. The vast majority of the flowers on the coconut inflores- cence are male. I have seen inflorescences which did not bear any female flowers, 20 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. When a tree first begins to flower, the earliest inflorescences fre- quently bear male flowers only. One such tree produced five male inflorescences. Thus for the best part of a year a tree, though flowering, may not produce any nuts. If, as my information stands, this occurs side by side with trees which bear mixed inflorescences from the first, it would point to a difference in jât, rather than a difference in previous treatment. In that case, the early history of the parent plants ought to be known when selecting nuts for seed, for it is obviously an advantage to have trees whieh bear nuts from their first flowers. There is a theory, which appears to be supported by some evi- dence, that in cases where plants bear two kinds of flowers, male and female, on the same or different individuals, those which grow near the upper limit of the species are male. As already stated, "overlapping" occurred thrice—in October 1912, May 1913, and September 1913. Evidently an interval between successive inflorescences not exceeding about thirty days is necessary to ensure over-lapping. That requires the production of twelve, or more, inflorescences per annum, whereas on the tree under notice there were only nine. The interval between successive inflorescences varied from 24 to 58 days. On the average, the intervals at the beginning of the year were lunger than those later. The largest interval occurred in the driest season though the intervals are not solely governed by rainfall- —[Extract from an article by Mr. T. fetch in the " Tropical Agricul- turist " for Decemher, 191-3.] THE NUT, The nut consists of four definite parts—the husk, shell, meat and water, The following statement gives the percentages of each compo- nent as reckoned from 1,000 nuts, taken from sea-shore and inland trees : — Parts. Sea-shore. Inland. 38'0 30'8 Husk Shell Meat Water 227 26"4 n'9 127 27"4 301 ,.v .••-•:.-*?• '••"..•••• •"-. •.'•: ••%.:,• iiL-Hi... r..; -., > ..:-•••: .:'~ ••-:.>••.- : COCONUT L>AI_M GROWN FROM A YELLOW NUT. 7"»/oc# >«íí 2«,  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 21 The following tablé shows the composition of the components of a single nut reckoned in grams (28j grams = 1 oz. avoirdupois):— Parts." Husk Shell Meat Water Nitrogen. U609 0'660 4"683 1"542 0T71 Potash. 3'915 0'947 2"475 F313 Allowing 70 ti'ees to the acre and 40 nuts the annual loss in ash constituents per acre would be in pounds :— Ash Constituents. Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid ... Potash In Nuts. 52'29 1472 53'28 In Leaves. 27"88 2L69 65'84 Total. 80-17 36'41 119*12 The following analysis by Walker gives the percentage of the various components of the nuts :— 1,000 N u t s Husks only Nuts without Husks Shell and Meat only Water in Nut Shell (Dry) Meat only SEA-SHORE NüTS. lbs. Percent. 5,198 100 1,973 38'0 3,225 62'0 2,043 — 1.181 227 620 119 1,423 27'4 INLANJD NTTS. lbs. Per cent. 5,027 100 1,546 30'8 3,480 69"2 2,153 —• 1,326 26'4 640 127 1,513 30'1 Phosphoric Acid. 0'017 0'459 1 7 4 0 per tree per annum, 22 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANÍ AL. An analysis by Walker of the Copra from 1,000 nuts gave the following results [the percentage is of total weight of nut in husk] :— Cupra o i l Moisture in Copra .__. Oil in Copra cent. 664-6 12-S cent. cent 726-4 14-0 710 3 141 cent, 732-6 14-6 417-5 8-3 101 57-0 SEA-SIIORE XUTS. INLAND NUTS. SUN DHILD. GRILL SüN DRIED. GRILL DRIED. DRIED. lbs. Per lbs. fer lbs. Per lbs. Per ,400.8 7-7 9-2 60 3 437 5 8-4 4-20-4 8-4 86 9-8 60-2 59'2 FIELD CULTURE. The details of field culture are dealt with fully by the scientific officers as well as practical planters, whose papers we have reprinted. There aie, however, one or two points about which there is some difference of opinion and which might therefore be discussed. One is with reference to the position in which the nut should be placed in the nursery. Some favour the vertical and others the horizontal position. Petch condemns the latter as tending to prcduce a bulbous stem which he considers a sign of weakness. He favours the vertical position but with a slant to one side, Another point is the " spacing," or distance apart, at which coconuts should be planted. Up to within recent years the common spacing adopted was 24 by 24 feet, giving about 75 trees to the acre ; but as the result of experience this has been increased. Jardine was of opinion that, except on the richest soils, a good distance was 26 feet. Copeland favours 30 feet, placing, as we are inclined to think, undue weight on the importance of sunlight for transpiration. In saying this we do not, of course, wish to minimize the need for the free access of light and air to all parts of the plant. Light and air are prime necessities for healthy growth, but in pi-oviding for them there is clanger of adopting too wide a spacing and losing in crop. Most people would be disposed to agree with Jardine, who, though he did not have the advantage of our present knowledge of coconuts, was a close observer and a thoroughly practical planter with very definite views. Still another important question is whether clean weeding should be practised on coconut estates- (aafiA f St? *. Ir  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 23 This is fully and ably discussed in the Colombo Commercial Company's yrochure, which makes a very good case for clean weeding. The old practice of keeping a large number of cattle for the manuring of the estate is one which is dying hard ; but, with the intro- duction of a more thorough tillage system and a regular programme of manuring with artificial fertilisers, it will not be long before an estate with grass growing amongst the palms will be a rare sight, particularly in the drier' parts of the island where the preservation of a soil mulch as a means of conserving moisture is bound to become a practical detail of the first importance. The good effect of ploughing and harrowing in coconut culti- vation is now generally acknowledged, and untilled lands left iu high weeds are not so frequently met with today. Within the past few years the use of the tractor in agriculture has been demon- strated, and some of the larger estates are employing this method of tillage. Here is wdiat the Director of Agriculture has to say on the subject :— Tractors have now been utilised upon coconut estates in Ceylon for the past three years and useful work both in ploughing and in disc-harrowing has been performed. The tractor is capable of performing much deeper ploughing than when animal traction is employed and work can be done even in very dry weather when the ground would normally bo too hard for work with either cattle or buffaloes. Similarly, heavier and larger imple- ments can be utilized for harrowing and work thereby performed more rapidly. In some quarters there is a belief that on the sandy coconut lands of the coastal regions good deep disc-harrowing with tractors would afford adequate cultivation. The initial cost of a tractor and its outfit is heavy and therefore only the larger estates are likely to be in a position to afford the capi- tal outlay, but it is possible that neighbouring estates could co-operate together to purchase a tractor outfit for use upon their estates or that provision could be made by the owner of a tractor to hire it for work on other estates in the neighbourhood. Similarly, it is possible that organizations could be formed solely for hiring tractors to estates for definite contract work. Such co-operation for the use of tractors for hiring out for definite pieces of work is common practice in all countries where 24 COCONUT PLANTERAS MANUAL. tractors have now found a place in their agricultural economy and is well worth serions consideration by coconut growers in the Colony. The tractor to be an economical unit must find continuous work throughout the year, and if an estate is not laige enough to pro- vide this work then other arrangements should be made whereby the maximum output is obtained. If such co-operation is possible or if hiring companies can be formed there are good prospects before tractors on the coconut estates of the Colony. The general consensus of opinion amongst progressive coconut growers is that cultivation in the drier districts should not be carried on at too frequent intervals. The maintenance of the humus-content of the soil has to be kept continuously in view and if green manure plants are not grown between the rows of coconuts then a certain amount of grass and weeds should be allowed to grow in order that they may be turned into the soil. The effects of the deeper ploughing which will be possible with the use of tractors will be watched with interest and coconut planters are asked to keep accurate records of the crops from those fields which have been deep ploughed and subsequently thoroughly cultivated.— [The JUrector of Agriculture in the " Tropical Agriculturist".) Draining will be found dealt with by Mr. A. K. Beven, and tho subject of manuring exhaustively treated of by the Agricultural Chemist (whose authority will be readily acknowledged) as well as in the publications of the Colombo Commercial Company, and in Trent Yale's Chapters. It should lie mentioned, with regard to packing husks round the trees and filling trenches with fallen coconut leaves, that the Goveinment Entomologist fears that this may encourage the brefding of beetles. There are some people who think it a mistake to manure coconuts for the reason that when once manured they must always be manured. To this the only reply would be that if it pays to manure there is no reason only it should not be done regularly and continuously. Indeed, except on rich, virgin land, the intelligent planter will always keep up the fertility of his soil by the judicious application of manure. There are three ingredients that should always be found in a manure mixture or supplied in a manuring programme, viz. : nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. It may be stated as a general fact that nitrogen is mainly directed to the production of leaf, phosphoric S*_Jf ssssssssm . ^ « ^ S_#3!-UW«í*-Í-ÍW.«*\.sjfW -»«; L/V.tf M^ _vas_i DRYING FLOOR HOT CMAMO-R SECTION. COPKA DRYING ROOM. To face page 26.  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 27 suitable foi copra-making have been designed. Hamel Smith has designed asimple rotary drier made by David Bridge & Co. at Man- chester. There is another designed by F. A. G. Pape, turned out by the same firm. Both these aie described and illustrated in ' Consuls of the East." Dr. Copeland in his work on the Coconut makes reference to the tunnel drier designed .by a German Engineer ; a steam-heated desiccator planned by the Phillipine Bureau of Agricul- ture ; and tbe " Magdalena " drier designed by Pedro Bonito. The following is a description (with a diagram) of a tropical drying louse in Samoa referred to by Copeland :—The house, the outer walls of whicli are supported on wooden posts set in cement, stands over a small room of brick and mortar 16^ feet long, 7| wide and 7| high. Set into the wall of this hot room, at the middle of one end, is a fire- place. A flue of stones runs from the fire-place obliquely towards the other end of the room where it is connected by a vertical piece of piping with a horizontal system of sheet iron flues consisting of two length-wise sections and the necessary cross-wise connections. The iron flues, made from sheets, are nearly a foot in diametei-. The ends project beyond the walls and can be opened when the pipes need clean- ing. The last flue ends in a chimney of suitable height—say 30 to 40 feet. The course of the smoke is shown by arrows in the diagram. The drying room proper is directly over the heating room and a very little larger, and the floor between them is merely a grating. The copra may be placed on coarse coir matting laid over the grating. The tempeiature is kept as nearly as possible at 112° F. DESICCA TED COCONUT. The desiccated coconut industry was started in the Colony in the early 'eighties. Originally it was in the bands of a few European firms, to whom orders came from Europe and America, but gradually Ceylonese took to its manufacture, and mills are now to be found scattered over the Western and North-Western Provinces, and, to sonic extent, the Southern Province. The first necessity in the manufacture of D.C. (as it is called for short) is carefully selected, well-matured nuts. The price of these ranges according to quality, and nuts which yield over 350 lbs. of D.C. per 1,000 are much sought after. Ihe best of these yield up to 400 lbs. and a little over. Alter being picked the nuts, with the husks on, are allowed to season for about a month in the heap, so as to facilitate husking. They are then husked and taken to the mill, where they undergo a sorting, small and faulty nuts being rejected. The selected nuts are finally put away in a store to be issued and used as necessary, 28 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. The first operation in the process of manufacture is shelling. This is done by hand with a light hatchet, though in some mills the circular saw is employed to do the work. Shellers are very expert in the use of the hatchet, and work with almost incredible rapidity. When well practised they are able to shell 2,000 nuts a day. The shelled nuts are then thrown into a long .tank made of wood or masonry, into which water is led. The next process is paring or shaving, usually done by women with the aid of spoke-shavers kept well sharpened, to remove the reddish rind and leave a pure white kernel. At the same time the kernel is broken open to let the coconut water escape. The more expert will deal with 1,250 to 1,500 kernels per day. As soon as shaving is done the kernels go back to the water, which is some- times treated with lime to secure a whiter product, as exposure to the air, and especially the sun, discolours them, and so affects their quality. Little boys are employed to rub off with pieces of tin like graters any specks of red rind which the women may have left. The nuts, after thorough washing, aie then removed to the disintegrating machines, in which they are treated, so as to produce various grades. In one it is ground to a mass and comes out like the grated coconut used for curries. In others it is cut into chips, strips or threads. The. product of the machines is removed to the. desiccators and dried at a temperature of 160° F. It is then spread out on a lead lined table so that any discoloured particles may be picked out, and after being graded by means of hand sieves or sifters, is packed in tea chests, lead and paper lined, and consolidated with the aid of a screwpress till each chest contains 130 lbs. Finally tbe chests are nailed and hooped. The rates of payment for husking, shelling and paring are about the same. It used to be 50 cnits, but has now risen to 60 cents per 1,000. Of the by-products nothing is allowed to go to waste. The shell?, are sold for fuel or converted into charcoal for ga.s engines. The palings and sweepings are dried and sold to chekku men who get oil and poonac from them. The coconut water is collected and some oil recovered from it. When thei-3 was a shortage of acetic acid for rubber coagulating, this water was allowed to ferment and served as a substitute. In selecting a site for a desiccating mill it is necessary to consider the following points :—(l) facilities for securing a regular supply of nuts; (2) transport facilities ; (3) a good and reliable water supply; (4) availability of labour ; (5) fuel supply. m EXPRESSING OIL BY " CHEKKU." To face finge 2b.  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 29 The following is an estimate by a practical miller of the cost of erecting a desiccating factory to deal with 30 to 40 thousand nuts per day of 18 hours, [Cheaper types of buildings, without iron work, could be constructed for about half the cost]. Structural Iron work complete Roofing Sheets complete Cluttering and drainage piping complete Cladding sheets complete Wood stringers and iron fittings for cladding in- cluding bolts, etc. " Jay " wood window frames complete Teak doors and window sashes including glass Iron fittings and screws for above including door locks, etc. Painting Cement Contractors work including all necessary masonry- work, concrete foundations for pillars, con- crete floor, dwarf brick walls and cement plaster to inside and lime plaster to outside of walls complete with erection of all iron Rs. c. 7,884 01 3,858 63 534 51 604 88 126 10 398 50 1,370 78 236 14 900 00 2,472 00 6,330 05 work and of painters ... Machinery * Contingencies Rs 24,715 60 ... 48,000 00 Rs. 72,715 60 1,500 00 Rs. 74,215 60 Rs. 75,000 Say * MACHINERY. (including cost of erection). One 64 B.H.P. Gas Engine complete Eight Desiccators complete Five cutters complete (2 for ordinary and 3 for fancy grades) Shafting complete 2,000 00 Sifter complete 1,000 00 Rs. 48,000 00 N.B.—These prices are subject to market fluctuations. 12,000 00 28,000 00 5,000 00 30 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL OIL AND FIBRE. The expression of coconut oil by means of the " Chekku " or bullock mill has been carried on from comparatively remote times. The chekku takes a load of from 30 to 40 lbs. copra and calculating at six full charges a day, should deal with 5 to 6 cwts. This ought to give a yield of somewhat less than li cwt. oil and the balance in poonac. These crude mills are being superseded by up-to-date oil-extract- ing machines, though in many parts the chekku is still seen at work. In modern oil factories there is first a macerating process and then the expression of the oil by powerful presses. Sometimes there is a first cold pressure for the best quality of oil, and afterwards pressure with heat. The oil is thereafter left standing to clear by sedimen- tation or is clarified by means of pressure fillers. Tho best mills on the Continent are able to extract 70 % and over of oil, provided the copra is thoroughly dried. With ordinary copra, however, the percentage is about 65. Along the Southern coast of Ceylon it is a common sight to see the husks of coconuts which have been steeped in water—generally brackish—being beaten out by women with the aid of rude mallets. This primitive method of extraction is responsible for a considerable quantitiy of fibre which finds its way to Galle and Colombo. In recent years a great many fibre mills have been set up in the coconut- growing districts, chiefly round about Colombo, Negombo and Kurunegala. After the separation of the husks from the nuts, the former are taken to the soaking tanks, where they are left immersed in water till they become pliable. They are sometimes first put through a machine which crushes them, breaking the outer skin and flattening the fibrous layer beneath. Next the husks are taken to the extracting machines which are worked in pairs, the first known as the breaker being set with coarse teeth for breaking up the husks, and the second, or finisher, fittel with finer teeth for combing the fibre, which is then washed and dried. The fibre known as bristle or brush fibre is that which remains in the operator's hand, after the husks have been submitted to both machines, while the spinning or mattress fibre is carried through the machine and passed out. The bristle fibre is further combed by hand NUT FALL AND LEAF DROOP. To face page 30  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL- 31 and graded according to length and colour and when dry is ready to be made up into packages. The fibre passing through the machine (mattress fibre) is subjected to further treatment in a special machine which teases out all non-fibrous fragments with which it is associated and delivers the fibre only in a clean condition. The refuse from the machines, which is of no commercial value, is what is known as coir dust. The fibre is then pressed into bales of from 2 to 3 cwt., measuring from 9 to 1 3 cubic feet. DISEASES AND PESTS. I.—DISEASES. The following is a list (drawn up by the Department of Agricul- ture) of the known diseases to which the coconut palm is liable :— fl) Root diseases : Forties lignosus and Fomes lucidus. (2) Stem Disease : Tliielaviopsis paradoxa (a stem bleeding disease), (3) Leaf diseases : Botryodiplodia sp. (Leaf break or leaf die-back), Desmotascus cocoes, llehnintltosporium, incur ratnm, Pestallozzia palmarum (grey blight), Phoma cocoicola, Vhytophthora sp. (Leaf drop), Beptoria cocoes^ and iSphurella Gastonis. (4) Bud diseases: Bacillis coli ( Budrot). and Phytophthora (or Pithium) sp. (Budrot). (5) Fruit disease : Phytoph- thora sp. (Nut fall.?) The more important of these are referred to in the following notes :— Budrot. The first indication of the disease in young trees is the withering of the youngest unfolded leaf. This eventually turns brown and can be pulled out of its sheath when is is found to end in a soft brown evil smelling mass. The decay of this leaf is followed by the death of the other fronds in succe-sion proceeding outwards and down- wards. Finally only a conical stump remains on the top of the stem. If the dying fronds are removed and the bud exposed the "Cabbage'' will appear not as usual white and clean but a discoloured putrefying mass with an abominable odour. This rot " attacks and destroys the whole of the cabbage and only stops on reaching the hard woody part of the stem. Ihe latter and the roots remain quite healthy, and the tree dies as a result of the destruction of the terminal bud or growing point. The organisms responsible for this decay are according to Petch, bacteria which are abundantly present in the rotting tissues. These 32 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. organisms would appear to find an entrance to the cabbage along the youngest leaf. Owing to the scattered way in which the disease occurs it is thought probable that it is propagated by insects In the case of old trees the fruits generally fall off while the leaves tend to droop and finally drop away leaving a sickly top whicli is eventually knocked over by the wind. In older ti'ees the bactérica probably enter the cabbage via the fruit stalks. The destruction of a tree is usually complete within three months, frequently much less. Close planting and interplanting with other trees is thought by Petch to favour the disease by preventing evaporation of moisture from thu roots. The nature of the disease and the manner of growth of the palms make it impossible to find a remedy, though measures can be adopted for checking the spread of the disease. The affected trees should, as soon as they are discovered, bo felled and the terminal bud immediately burned. The difficulty of reaching the affected part of the tree makes disinfection by Milestone impracticable, but a solu- tion of it (l lb. to 20 gallons of water) may be sprayed with advantage over the young parts of trees in the vicinity to prevent their infection. But by adopting drastic measures as soon as the disease appears in one or two trees, it is possible to keep it in check. ROOT DISEASE.—As root disease usually brings about a stoppage of the water supply its eflect resembles that of drought, but unlike drought-stricken trees it occurs as a rule as isolated cases. The fungus (Fames lucidas) that causes root disease is an old one and the disease itself has finally existed since the introduction of the Coconut, and there is no reason to apprehend any serious danger from it. The appearance of the disease is indicated first by a drooping of the outer leaves which hang down round the stem. The nuts fail to set and with the fall of the outer leaves the palm is left with a cluster of upright leaves at the top. In this way it dwindles away, the leaves becoming yellower and smaller and the tree ceasing to bear till finally the whole tree dies oft*with the decay of the bud. Affected trees should be felled and the butt end dug out and burnt with 2 or 3 feet of stem above. This should be done as soon as the outer leaves have withered and the tree has become barren. There is no evidence that the mycelium of F. lucidus can live independently in the soil or travel through it, but it is advised that a trench 2 feet deep be dug round the site of the affected tree as far as ;possible from M LEAF BREAK DISEASE OF COCONUT: EARLY STAGE. Hie disease is caused by a fungus- Botryodiplodia—which usually gains entrance after Pestalozzia and attacks weak palms, Tofatt M< Wi  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 33 the hole' which should bo left open for at least a year. There is no chance of treatment by internal application of fungicides. There is no difficulty in distinguishing between bud rot and root disease. In the former case the central spike withers first, in the latter the outer leaves wither first. STEM DISEASE,—This is the common bleeding disease which for a time caused great alarm amongst planters, and is the subject of a voluminous report by Petch, who, however, does not attach much importance to it. There may be cases of actual death, but these are comparatively few. The appearance of the bleeding spots which exude a viscid liquid is too familiar to need minute description. In spite of the cutting out of affected parts any effect of the disease on the crop does not appear to be appreciable. The fungus responsible for tho disease (Tliielaviopsis ethaceticus) is parasitic on the sugarcane in which it causes the " Pineapple disease." Tho diseased part should be completely cut out till all discoloured tissue is removed. This can be conveniently done by means of a 1-inch chisel and mallet, care being taken to slope the lower end of the cut to allow water to flow away. The excised tissue must be burnt. The exposed inner tissue should then be protected by a coating of hot coal tar after scorching the wound by means of a lighted torch of rags dipped in kerosene oil. The disease is propagated by spores from tree to tree, and this transference may be affected in many ways such as by coconut pluckers, ants, squirrels, etc. The spores on being lodged in the cracks usually found on the stem would penetrate it and start the disease, and fresh spores would again be brought to the surface by the liquid that exudes from the diseased patch. Often tho patch may be a small one, but when treatment is being carried out it is frequently found that the disease is very extensive underneath, and requires considerable excision. NCT-FALL.—This phenomenon was fully investigated by Mr. C. H. Gadd, Assistant Government Mycologist, Ceylon, who has summa- rised the result of his latest observations as follows :— The fall of nearly full grown, but immature, nuts from the coco- nut palm has hitherto been regarded as being primarily due to fungus attacks. The failure to find a causative organism always associated with the disease has given rise to the view that its cause may in some cases be purely mechanical, or due to adverse physiological or environ- mental conditions. C 34 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. The discovery that a species of Phytophthora was usually present on fallen nuts led to the suggestion that the disease might be preven- ted by the application of a fungicide such as Bordeaux Mixture- Experiments in 1923 to determine the value of this spray as a preven- tive of nut-fall gave negative results. The number of fallen, but immature, nuts in the sprayed plot was approximately equal to that in the unsprayed plot. The climatic conditions of that year were unfavourable to the growth of the fungus and the pathogenic organ- ism was not found on any of the fallen nuts examined from either plot. In riew of the absence of a pathogenic organism it became evident that causes other than fungus attack might lead to a similar diseased condition. A serious case of fruit fall of coconuts before maturity is reported from Indo-China, in December, 1920. The appearance of the fruit suggested a parasitic disease, but comparative analyses of the soils of various plots led to the conclusion that the fundamental cause was the insufficient nourishment of the roots, which was remedied by the application of nitrogenous manures. The description of the disease and the presence of certain organisms on tlie fallen fruits suggests the the condition known in Ceylon as "Nut fall." Observations in Ceylon, however, do not lead to the same conclusion, viz., that its cause is an insufficiency of nitrogenous manures. Nut-fall in Ceylon is known to occur in plots which are regularly and liberally manured, whereas it is absent from other plots which rarely receive any manurial treatment. The discovery that the abscission of fruits of Juglans californien quercina. is due to water deficit beyond a certain limit, and that a similar cause also leads to the fall of Citrus fruits, may throw some light on the problem of nut-fall of coconuts in Ceylon. A water deficit has already been shown to affect the setting of young coconut fruits in Ceylon. Following a prolonged period of drought, there is an increased fall of the female flowers, or button nuts," as they are frequently termed. The fall of such "buttons" had previously been attributed mainly to the lack of fertilization, but, undoubtedly, other factors besides fertilization play an important part in bringing this about. The June drop of peaches in Delaware was generally attributed to incomplete fertilization, but an examination of a large amount of cytological material gave conclusive evidence that June drop was not the result of improper fertilization but of other physiological factors. It has also been ascertained that moisture is // * ** S / ^ ^i *2 ^ !. ! •í5 •• if\ ñ! . I ?" »%< \ i !¿ >: •vi * '. -**fc ^ Mi LEAF BREAK DISEASE OF COCONUTS : LATE STAGE. The disease starts on a terminal leaflet of an older leaf and extends along the midrib, killing pairs of leaflets which turn brown. Finally the leaf breaks about the middle, and the withered end hangs down. Diseased carts should be cut and burnt To fact pate U. *_* ! &'__-.-* / ^' \  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 35 an important factor in the setting of tomato fruits, and that by an efficient conservation of soil moisturo 'blossom drop" of tomatos can be reduced. The above, together with the fact that an increase of button fall of coconuts follows a period of drought, leads to the conclusion that the abscission of youngest fruits may be caused by a deficit of soil moisture beyond a certain limit. That a similar cause may lead to the abscission of larger grown fruits is worthy of consideration. Nut-fall of coconuts in Ceylon occurs principally during the rains of north-east monsoon. Nut-fall tlierefore occur.., not when there is a deficit of moisture, but during the wettest times of the year. This on the face of it would appear to negative any idea that a deficit of soil water is a contributory cause of nut-fall. The root system of the coconut palm, however, is peculiar in many respects. The roots have no root hairs, and water can be absor- bed only through the epidermis of a short region of the root immediately behind the root tip. The remainder of the root is covered by a rigid shell, called a hypodermis, which is impermeable to water. 'When the growth of the roots is checked by dryness or other unfavourable con- dition of the soil, the hypodermis is formed nearer to the tip and ultimately no absorbing zone at all is left. Coconut roots are there- fore ill adapted to the absorption of large quantities of water. In nature, no roots will grow to any distance into water, nor into a level of soil where water stands, and a rise in the water level ultimately kills the submerged roots. The hypodermis is impermeable not only to water but also to air. The roots are to a large extent dependent on special breathing organs or Pneumatophores for the their air supply. These breathing organs are specialised roots and their structure is such that open «.rial com- munication is maintained through the pneumatophore to the internal tissues of the parent root. Consequently the coconut requires an open, well aerated soil, and any tendency towards water-logging will interfere with the air supply to the root. An excess of water in the soil may therefore seriously interfere with the vital processes of the roots, leading to a reduced absorption of water and ultimately to the death of the roots. This in effect becomes equivalent to an actual water shortage. Nut-fall of coconuts occuz-s principally in the Galagedara side of the Kurunegala district, and is there most prevalent during the rains 36 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. of the north-east monsoon. The soil is a heavy loam which becomes very hard during the dry weather, but is sticky, with a tendency to- wards water logging, during heavy rains. T h e soil conditions during heavy rains may become deleterious to the coconut roots and thus lead to the premature dropping of the fruit. Climatic conditions during the north-east monsoon are favourable for fungus growth, so, at this season, nut-fall as caused by pathogenic organisms may be expected to be prevalent. Nut-fall, however, fre- quently occurs at this time even in the absence of any causative fungus. In view of the above it is suggested that heavy rainfall may produce conditions of the soil adverse to the healthy growth of the root system of coconut palms. This, without the intervention of any pathogenic organism, may result in the abscission of immature fruits. -—(See also BULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, No. 5-3.) II —PESTS. THE RHINOCEROS OR BLACK BEETLE OF COCONUTS. ( Oryctes rhinoceros.) INTRODUCTION. This leaflet, dealing with the Black Beetle pest, is one of the series of coconut pest leaflets wdiich are being issued by the Depart- ment of Agriculture to give coconut planters full information about the three most important insect pests of the coconut palm, and about the measures which should be taken to control them. The leaflet on the Coconut Caterpillara, nother important pest, and that on the Red Weevil of coconuts will follow this. These three pests cause serious losses to the coconut industry in many districts, and the posi- tion which this crop now occupies as one of the main industries of the Island makes it essentital that all coconut growers should take measures to check the ravages of these three posts wherever they occur. NA TURE OF THE DAMAGE. Tlie Black Beetle is one of the most important insect pests of coconuts in Ceylon, and is generally prevalent wherever coconuts and other palms grow. The damage is done by the beetle stage, which bores in the crowns of healthy young and older bearing palms for the purpose of feeding on the juice or sap which flows from the wounds SCO IS7.I3 RmxocEitos OR BLACK BEETLE. 1, Female. 2. Horn of Male. 3, Horn of Female. 4, Eggs. 5, Eggs in Dead Stem, Oj 7j & 8( Larva1. 9, Cocoon with Pupa., 10, Pupa—front view. To fact page 36.  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 37 which it makes. The beetle itself rarely causes serious injury to coco- nut palms in Ceylon, since it is not known to breed in healthy palms, and since it appears to be controlled to some extent by its natural enemies, but its importance asa pest is mainly due to the fact that its injury is often followed by the attacks of the Red AVeevil, which lays its eg_rs in the wounds made by the Black Beetle, and the grubs of which kill young palms and seriously injure the older bearing palms. The results of the damage done by the Black Beetle may be seen in the ragged appearance of the leaves or fronds, which are often badly notched, sometimes on both sides. Or the leaf stalks may be pierced with large holes near the base so that they sometimes break in high winds. This characteristic notching of the leaves and piercing of the leaf stalks results from the beetles having bored through portions of the young leaves and leaf stalks while these were still closed up within the heart of the palm crown. Again, older palms may often bear permanent scars or pits on their trunks as the result of past injury to the crown of the palm by the Black Beetle. A DECLARED PEST. The importance of the Black Beetle as a pest of coconuts in Ceylon has been realized for many years, and it was declared a pest under the Ordinance as far back as 1907, but, apart from the collection and destruction of the beetles, no serious attempt has been made to reduce its numbers« It is hoped that a fuller knowledge of the habits of this pest may lead to a more general interest being taken to keep it in check. LlFE-HlSTORY AND HABITS OF THE DIFFERENT STAGES. BEETLE.—The Rhinoceros or Black Beetle is a rather large dark brown to blackish insect (figure 1), with a horn projecting slightly backwards from the top of the head- This horn is usually longer in the male (figure 2) than in the female (figure o.-* The mouth parts are not formed for biting and chewing, as in many other beetles, but the jaws are adapted for chiselling out small pieces of fibre and pith while the beetle is forcing its way into the heart of the palm crown. The horn is used in tearing out the fibrous strands which are gradually pushed out as the beetle works its way in. The beetle, therefore, does not bite off, chew, and swallow portions of the palm tissues, but bores into the softer parts of the bud and sucks up tho sap as it flows from the wound. The beetles are active about dusk aud after dark, but 38 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL: during the day they are usually to be found in the crowns of palms, in decaying palm stumps and. logs, and in heaps of manure and other refuse. EGG.—After feeding and mating the female beetles lay their eggs in almost any dead and decaying vegetable matter which will provide food for the grubs. A list of such breeding places is given later. The eggs are whitish to creamy white. They are rather narrow when freshly laid (figure 4, left) but gradually swell to more than double their original size, becoming almost round (figures 4 and 5, right) just before hatching. GRUB.—The eggs hatch in about two weeks into small whitish grubs with a light brown head and six legs (figure 6). They have mouth parts suitable for biting and chewing their food which consists of decaying vegetable matter. This passes through the body, giving it a bluish-grey colour in parts, especially towards the hinder end. The dark colour of the grubs is especially noticeable when the yare about half grown (figure 7). The older grubs, while usually feeding on fairly soft decaying matter, are able to bore their way into the harder portions of the palm stumps and logs which are gradually hollowed out and reduced to mere shells. The grubs are usually full grown (see figure 8) in from three to four months, but may take longer, and are a dirty white colour, which is mainly due to the fact that the dark undigested food is gradually expelled from the body after the grubs stop feeding in preparation for the pupal or cocoon stage. PUP A OR COCOON.—The full-grown grub forms its pupal or cocoon cell in various places depending on the nature of its breeding ground. The cell may be made in the soil under manure or refuse heaps, or in the hard walls of partially decayed stumps and logs, or in the soft vegetable mould usually found in stumps and logs occupied by the grubs. Figure 9 shows a pupal cell; half natural size, which was found to be composed of the vegetable mould in a hollow coconut log. The grub, after constructing its pupal cell, gradually shrinks to about two-thirds its former size and changes into the pupal stage. The pupa or cocoon is light brown in colour and somewhat resembles the beetle in shape and size (figure 10). The pupal stage lasts between three and four weeks, after which the beetle comes out of the pupal case inside the cell, but remains inside the cell for several days before making its way out to feed, ABANDONED COCONUT ESTATE WITH NUMEROUS DEAD TREES IN WHICH COCONUT BEETLES ARE BREEDING. To face page 38.  COCONUT P L A N T E R ' S M A N U A L . 39 BREEDING PLACES OF THE GRUBS.—As mentioned above the eggs may be laid in any place where there is likely to be sufficient decaying vegetable matter on which the grnbs can feed. The grubs, sometimes known as " manure poochies," are usually to be found in any heap or pit containing cattle or other manure or other decaying refuse, such as coconut husks and leaves, empty cacao pods, and paddy straw. They also breed freely in the decaying stumps and logs of such palms as coconut, palmyra, areca, ifcc, especially in the drier districts. They may also be found in young and older palms which have been left standing after liaving been killed by the Red Weevil grubs, or which have died from other causes. They are occasionally found in dead and decaying stumps of old dadap and of jungle trees. Most of the above breeding places are usually to be found in any locality where coconuts and other palms grow, and they are particularly common in towns and villages and on estates where coconuts are grown without careful supervision. CONTROL MEASURES. A knowledge of the habits of the Rhinoceros or the Black Beetle will enable coconut planters and others to carry out the following measures of control, which include measures against the beetles, and measures against the larv¡e or grubs. Measures against tlie Beetles. The collection and destruction of the beetles appear to be the method of control which is generally employed, but it is impossible to check the pest by this means alone if the grubs are breeding in large numbers in the neighbourhood. The beetles are usually caught while feeding in the crowns of coconut palm, either by spearing them with a specially made slender barbed piece of iron, by hooking them out with a piece of stout wire, or by digging them out, In many cases the cure does more harm than the disease, since the wounds made bythe beetles may be enlarged and then often left untreated, with the result that decay sets in or the wounds become attractive to egg-laying Red Weevils, the grubs of which either kill or seriously injure the palms. The beetles should be carefully extracted and then the wound should be plugged with coconut fibre soaked in tar, or with a mixture of sand and tar, and the hole stopped with clay. Another method used with success in the Dutch East Indies is to extract the beetles and fill the hole with a mixtui-e of 1 part coarse salt and 2 parts sand. The hole is then closed with clay, 40 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. The main objects of these measures are to remove and kill the beetles and to prevent the wounds from decaying Or from being attractive to the Red Weevil. Measures against the Grubs. ON ESTATES.—Keep all coconut estates and gardens as clean as possible. Split up and burn all decaying palm logs and stumps and kill the grubs and other stages of the Black Beetle found therein. Clean out the holes beneath old decayed palm stumps and fill these in with earth or sand to prevent further breeding of grubs. Cut down all old standing dead and dying palms to ground level, split up and burn the stems, and dig up the stumps or cover them over with earth or sand to a depth of at least 6 inches. Remove and burn all young palms killed by the Red Weevil or by disease, as these will soon breed the Black Beetle grubs. Clean up every three months all manure and coconut refuse lying in heaps, in pits, or in trenches and kill all the grubs found therein. IN TOWNS AND VILLAGES.—Clean up all manure and refuse heaps and pits every three months. Use the manure on the land and burn the refuse a t frequent intervals. Split up and burn all old palm stumps and logs in private com- pounds and kill the grubs and other stages. General Measures. All palm stems whicli are to be used for building purposes, fence posts, temporary bridges, &c, must be split up within three months after cutting. Whole logs can only be used for posts, ifec, if the ends are tarred thoroughly or protected from rotting. It is important that all measures of control against Black Beetle should be carried out by all coconut estates and gardens, and by all towns and villages in the coconut areas. NA TURAL ENEMIES. The grubs, pup», and beetles are occasionally found to be killed by a green parasitic fungus ( Metarrhisium anisoplhe), and the grubs and pupa.' are sometimes devoured by the predaceous grubs of another beetle. Peradeniya, July 1, 1922, Government Entomologist. J. C. HUTSON, w 1, m *.^Sf -J* COCONUT BED WEEVIL (RHYNCHOPHORUS FERRUGINEUS). Showing Damage done to Stems. To face page 40.  COCÓNÜT PLANTER'S MANUAL, 41 THE RED WEEVIL OR PALM WEEVIL. (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus). In the opinion of the writer the Red Weevil is the most impor- tant pest of the three in Ceylon, since it is prevalent in all coconut areas, and is capable, in the larval stage, of killing young palms and seriously injuring older palms. Much of the damage done to the crowns of palms by the Red Weevil larvas is attributed to the Black Beetle, whichoften seems to be regarded as the more serious pest of the two beet- les. It is true that the larv;e of both the Black Beetle and Red Weevi] may sometimes be found in the crowns of dying palms, but in such cases it is the Weevil grubs which are usually responsible for the dying Condition of the palms; while the Beetle grubs have only come in after the palm has begun to decay. The differences between the various stages of the two beetles and their close association with each other will be explained elsewhere in this leaflet. NA TURE OF DAMAGE, The Red Weevil, as indicated above, is probably the most serious pest of coconuts in Ceylon, since it breeds actually in living palms, which are in many cases killed or seriously injured. This pest does practically no damage to palms in the weevil or adult stage, beyond making small holes or punctures with its snout or proboscis in any wound or soft spot. These punctures may be made partly for feeding and partly for the laying of eggs, ' The damage is done by the larva; which hatch from these eggs and tunnel about inside the palm, even- tually eating out a fairly large cavity inside the crown or the trunk. Since the larvas work entirely inside a palm, the injury is often not detected until it is too late to save the palm. Quite young palms, four or five years old, are quickly riddled and killed off by an attack of weevil grubs, while the injury to palms a few years older is often fatal, since they may be attacked anywhere from the crown to the base. Injury to the crown is almost invariably fatal unless detected early, and results in the withering and collapse of the young central leaves. In cases where the trunk or the base is attacked, the injury may sometimes be detected by the oozing of a brownish liquid, or small pieces of chewed fibre, from a small hole in the trunk or at the base. If the in festation is noticed in the early stages, the palm can sometimes be saved by prompt removal of the larva, and treatment of the wound. Old palms may sometimes bo attacked in the crown, usually after injury by Black Beetle, and in such cases the results may be fatal. il COCONUT PLANTER'S MA.NUAL. Old palms are rarely attacked in the trunk or at the base, since by that time the tissues have become too hard to permit larval develop- ment, even if these are still attractive to egg-laying weevils. A DECLARED PEST. The Red Weevil was declared a pest under the Ordinance in 1907 at the same time as the Black Beetle, but no general campaign has been waged against this pest. The collection of weevils and the treat- ment of injured palms is carried out on some estates. LIFE-HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE DIFFERENT STAGES. Weevil.—The Red Weevil or Palm Weevil is one of the largest of the weevils or snout-bearing beetles. It is usually about \\ inches long, including the snout, aud is generally of a reddish-brown colour, with black markings behind the head. It varies considerably in size, colour, and markings. The usual shape is indicated in figure 1 In both sexes the mouth parts are lengthened in the form of a slender and slightly curved snout or proboscis, which bears a very small pair of biting jaws at the end and a pair of antenna? near the base. The snout of the female, is more slender than that of the male, which bears a small "brush" of short hairs on the upper side near the end. The weevils in the adult stage do very little feeding on the palms, but can live for two or three months after emerging from their cocoons. They may sometimes be seen flying about during the day, but are less active after dark. They are quickly attracted to and palm which has been injured by wind, or by knife wounds, or which has been bored by the Black Beetle. Diseased palms aie also attrac- tive. Any injured or diseased palm is a favourable breeding place, and the female beetles flock there to lay their eggs. Experiments recently made in the Dutch East Indies with marked Red Weevils indicated that they can detect favourable breeding places at a distance of 1,000 yards, or more than half a mile. Eggs.—The eggs are small, slender, and whitish to creamy-white and are usually about l-10th of an inch long by l-25th of an inch broad. They increase very little in size before hatching in from four to five days. A list of places in which eggs may be laid on a palm is given below (see Habits of Oviposition). Grubs or Larvce.—The newly hatched grubs are small and whitish, and in general appearance they closely resemble the full-grown grubs. fSZÊ. èSœ**;/ RED WEEVIL (RHYNCHOPHORUS FERRUGINEUS). Showing Damage done to Young Palms. iMs To face page 42.  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL- 43 They have a light-brown head with jaws strong enough to enable them to bore their way about inside the palm. They have a stout fleshy body, but no legs. They feed on living plant tissues inside the palm, being entirely surrounded by their food, and protected during the whole period of their development into beetles. They are full-grown in two or three months, and then form their cocoons wherever they happen to have been feeding inside the palm. As many as fifty larva) may sometimes to be found in a single palm. Cocoons and Pupee.—The fully developed grub forms its cocoon by winding around itself a number of tough, fibrous threads to form a stout compact hollow cell, within which it remains quiet for a few days. During this period it gradually shrinks to about two-thirds its former size, having stopped feeding. It then changes in the pupa] stage, remaining in this stage for about two weeks. The pupa is pale brown at first, but becomes slightly darker before the emergence of the weevil. Figure 6 shows the pupa with the snout, legs, and wings closely applied to the underside of the body. Weevil.—After about two weeks the weevil comes out of its pupal skin, but remains inside its fibre cocoon for about two weeks before making its way out into the open. In some cases the cocoons are packed so tightly within the cavity in the palm that some of them are pressed out of their normal shape, and the weevils fail to develop properly and die inside. Preliminary breeding experiments carried out under laboratory conditions at Peradeniya indicate that the com- plete life cycle from Qgg to weevil takes about four to five months, but the period of develnpment may be shorter under natural conditions and in the coastal districts. Habits of Oviposition.—Under laboratory conditions the female weevils laid a few eggs almost daily during a period of over a month, but unfortunately most of them were killed oft' by a fungus disease. Duiing this period the greatest number of eggs obtained from one female was 231, while others laid from 50 to 200 eggs before being killed by disease. Fuller details will be published later. In the Dutch East Indies the maximum number of eggs obtained from a single female Red Weevil was 531, and it seems highly probable that under natural conditions in Ceylon a female weevil may lay considerably more than 200 eggs. The female lays her eggs in any part of a palm where she can find a wound or a soft spot. She may either first make a small hole, 44 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. sometimes 3rd of an inch deep, with her snout, and then put an egg down into this hole with her long ovipositor. Or she may push an egg into a convenient crack or a soft spot with her ovipositor alone. The weevil often makes use of the holes bored into the crown of palms by the Black Beetle, or she may push her eggs into the soft tissues at the base of a damaged leaf stalk. Eggs may also be laid anywhere in the trunk where there is a soft spot or a wound, or they may be deposited at thé base of palms where the bark has cracked. Young palms up to ten or twelve years old are specially liable to attack since they are more easily damaged, and therefore more attractive to egg- laying weevils than older palms. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE RED WEEVIL AND THE BLACK BEETLE Except that these two pests are both beetles, they are quite different in general appearance throughout their various stages of development and in their breeding habits. These differences have been brought out separately in leaflet No. 21 and in the present leaf- let, but they are here contrasted together for convenient reference. Beetles.—Tho Red Weevil is smaller and more slender than the Black Beetle, and is reddish-brown in colour, with a long slender snout projecting forwards and downwards from the front part of the head. The Black Beetle is a much larger and stouter insect, and is dark brown to blackish in colour with a horn curving upwards and back- wards from the top of the head. The Weevil does practically no injury to the palm, but the Beetle damages palms by boring into the crown in order to feed on the sap. Eggs and Larva.—The Weevil lays its small, slender, whitish eggs in any wcund or soft spot on living palms, and its larva? feed and develop inside the living parts of the palm, eventually killing it or in- juring it seriously. The Beetle lays its rather broadly oval whitish eggs in dead palms, in manure and other refuse heaps, in old palm stumps and logs, and its larv.e feed and develop in such places, and have nothing whatever to do with living healthy palms, so far as is known at the present time. The Weevil larvre are rather stout fleshy grubs, tapering at both ends, of a ci'eamy colour and with no legs, whereas the Beetle larva? are somewhat cylindrical, usually resting in curved position, of a dirty white to bluish colour, and have six rather long, jointed legs. ¿f REU WEEVIL. 1, Adult, i. Eggs in Leaf Stalk, 3, Eggs (enlarged), 4, Full-grown : 7, Heuil of Female. 8, Head of Male. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 45 Cocoons and Pu/xe.—The cocoons of the Red Weevil are formed inside the cavity made in the living palm by the larv¡e, and are made of fibrous threads wrapped closely round the pupa. The Black Beetle larva makes no regular cocoon, but forms its pupa in an earthern cell under refuse heaps, or hollows out a cell in the walls of old palm logs, or constructs a cell out of the vegetable mould in such logs. Both of these pests change into the adult stage from the pupa and the develop- ment starts all over again. T H E CLOSE ASSOCIATION OF THE RED WEEVIL WITH THE BLACK BEETLE. These two pests are dependent on each other to some extent for pro- viding breeding places, and it hps been pointed out by other writers that they do far more damage working together than either of them would be able to accomplish alone. For instance, the Black Beetle bores a hole in the crown of a perfectly sound and healthy palm, which ordinarily would be proof against weevil attack. This injury, however, lets in the Red Weevil to lay its eggs in the wound, and its larv.e kill or seriously injure the palms. The dead or dying palm forms a suitable \ breeding place for the Black Beetle larvce, which complete their deve- lopment and emerge as beetles to injure more palms. Since these two pests are both more or less prevalent throughout the coconut areas in Ceylon, and are so closely associated with each in their attacks on the palms, it is of vital importance to the coconut industry that more attention should be paid to their control. The coconut palm during the first ten or twelve years of its life is particularly liable to injury by these two beetles, whose methods of attack are not so conspicuous as those of the Coconut Caterpillar, but far more deadly. There is still far too great a tendency among coconut growers to leave young palms to take care of themselves until they come into bearing, although there is a steadily increasing number of planters who are beginning to realize that the extra care and attention given to palms in their early years is well worth the trouble and expense involved, and maybe regarded as a sound invest- ment. This brings us to the measures of control which must be adopted, both remedial and preventive. CONTROL MEASURES. The control of the Black Beetle, as outlined in leaflet No. 21, will help to reduce the number of injured palms in which Red Weevils are likely to lay their eggs and breed, and will therefore assist in the con- 46 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. trol of the weevil. These measures include the collection and des- truction of the Black Beetles, the periodical cleaning up of all estates and gardens by the removal and destruction by fire of all dead palm stumps and logs, and the proper disposal of all manure and refuse heaps at regular intervals. But in view of the fact that the Red Weevil has its own peculiar breeding habits, it is essential that definite measures of control be taken against this pest also. Remedial Measures.—All young palms up to ten or twelve years old should be visited frequently by the specially trained " beetlers " or beetle catchers, so that the attack may be detected in its early stages. As soon as the presence of weevil grubs is detected anywhere from the crown to the base of the trunk, the cavity formed by the grubs should be carefully excavated and all dead and decaying matter thoroughly cleaned out, leaving only the healthy tissues. The cavity should then be tarred several times inside and around the edges and finally filled in with mortar or cement level with the trunk. All larvœ, cocoons, and weevils removed from the cavity should be killed immediately. A bail attack in the crown can rarely be satisfactorily cured, and in such cases it is safer to remove and dispose of the palm so as to prevent further breeding of weevils and beetles. Older palms should also receive attention perodically, and the preventive measures given below will usually protect these. Preventive Measures.—These are specially applicable to young palms up to ten or twelve years of age. Avoid unnecessary wounding of young palms, as all wounds are attractive to egg-laying weevils. I t has been found in the Dutch East Indies that eggs may be laid even in wounds a month old. Do not strip off old leaves, but allow them to drop naturally. When cutting the leaves for control of Coconut Caterpillar, leave at least two feet of the leaf-stalk on the palm. All the wounds made by knives, cartwheels, &c, must be tarred immediately and thoroughly, especially in the case of young palms. Palms which are growing on land which is subject to periodical flooding should be mounded up with soil at the base as a protection from weevil attacks. This measure should also be applied to young palms which have their roots exposed. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 47 FOOD PLANTS. The Red Weevil probably attacks almost any kind of palm which is in a sufficiently attractive condition, but it apparently prefers tho coconut palm. It has been found attacking the palmyra (Borassus flabellifer), the date palm (Phœnix dactylifera), the cabbage palm (Oreodoxa olerácea), and Livistona palms. It probably also attacks the kitul or toddy palm >' Garyota urens), the areca palm (Areca cateehu), and the talipot (Corypha nmbraculifera). It may be mentioned that the Black Beetle breeds in most of the above palms when they are in a dead or decaying condition. NA TURAL ENEMIES. No natural enemies of the Hed Weevil have been found so far in Ceylon. Peradeniya, August 15, 1922. THE COCONUT CA TERPILLAR. (Nephantis serinopa.) The Coconut Caterpillar has been established for many years as a pest of coconuts on both the eastern and western sides of the island, but of late it has also appeared inland, though not to the same extent as in the coastal areas. The damage is done to the fronds or leaves by the caterpillars, which eat away the underside of the leaflets, so that they turn grey and die. If the pest is allowed to spread, it sometimes happens that every single palm on an estate may become infested with the cater- pillars, and all the fronds, except the youngest at the top of the palms, are killed. The nuts may be attacked and the vitality of the infested palm is lowered, so that there is a marked reduction in the crop during the next two years after a serious outbreak. This caterpillar has recently been declared a pest under the Plant Pests and Diseases Ordinance, and measures should be taken to control it. A short account of the pest is given here, so that coconut growerg may take notice of the caterpillar and the damage which it causes, and may know what measures must be adopted to control this pest. J. C. HUTSON, Government Entomologist. 48 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. DESCRIPTION OF STAGES. The coconut caterpillar, like all other caterpillars, passes through four stages in its development : (l) Egg ; (2) caterpillar ; (3) cocoon ; (4) moth. As will be seen below, the first three stages live actually on some portion of the leaves, while the fourth stage, the moth, is more active and can fly about. The moths, how- ever, do spend most of their lives on or near the coconut or other palms, such as palmyra. Moths.—The small grayish moths (see figure l) are not very active as compared with other moths, and do not fly much unless dis- turbed. Their presence on an estate may be detected by shaking or beating the lower leaves smartly, and any small moths that fly away a short distance and soon settle down again are almost certain to be the coconut moth. They are also sometimes found resting under cadjan sheds during wet weather. Tbe resting position of the moth is shown in figure 2. Eggs,—The moths lay their eggs on the underside of the leaves, and, if the leaves have already been attacked by the caterpillars, the eggs are usually laid under the webbed galleries made by the cater- pillars (see figure 3). The eggs are very small (see figure 3 and 4) and are not easy to find. They are whitish when freshly laid, but turn pinkish before hatching. A single female moth can lay more than 350 eggs during its life, which only lasts about two weeks. Caterpillars.—The eggs hatch in about ten days into very small caterpillars. These cover themselves with a few threads, under which they start eating away small portions of the green underside of the leaflets. The galleries are extended, and are covered with some of the small pieces of leaf bitten off by the caterpillars and with small pieces of waste matter. Cocoons.—The caterpillars are full grown in from six to eight weeks, and form their cocoons usually on the underside of the leaflets, covering these cocoons with small pieces of leaf and waste matter_ Figure 12 shows the injury to a portion of a coconut leaflet caused by the caterpillars, and two cocoons are shown. Moths.—The cocoon stage lasts about two weeks, after which the moths come out and are soon ready to begin egg laying for another brood of caterpillars. • COCONUT CATERPILLAR. To face past 48.  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 49 Damage done by the Caterpillars-—If the first brood of caterpillars has been a small one, it usually happens that only a few of the lower fronds on a few palms are slightly attacked and show small brown patches. In such cases the damage may not be noticed, or if it is noticed, the planter decides that no great harm has been done, and hopes that the pest will disappear. It is true that the pest does some- times die off without doing much damage, which may mean that the caterpillars and cocoons have been destroyed by their natural enemies, such as parasites. At other times, if these parasites are not suffi- ciently numerous to check the caterpillars, it may happen that most of the first brood of caterpillars will develop into moths. These moths may spread over a wider area, and lay their eggs for a second brood of caterpillars. This brood is usually much larger than the first, and within a short time the plantel' finds that the attack has spread over, perhaps, 4 or 5 acres, and that the lower leaves of the palms originally attacked are beginning to turn a greyish-brown colour and die off. Unless control measures are taken at this stage, the pest will he liable to increase very rapidly, and will attack thousands of trees over large areas, All the lower fronds rapidly turn grey and dry up, and are no longer of any use to the palms. The nuts .may also be attacked, and young nuts may fall as the result of caterpillar injury. Palms which have been weakened previously by coconut beetles, by diseases, or by starvation and neglect, may die after a bad attack of caterpillar, but palms which are usually kept healthy and well nour- ished recover rapidly from a caterpillar attack. Food Plants.—Besides attacking the coconut palm, the cater- pillars also feed on palmyra leaves, especially on the younger palms sometimes found along the road-sides, on cultivated lands, and on coconut areas. All infested leaves should be cut and burnt, otherwise the post will continue to breed on the palmyras after the coconut palms have been treated, and will attack adjacent coconut palms later. The coconut caterpillars are also found sometimes on ornamental palms in bungalow gardens. If the attack is oidy a slight one and on small palms, the caterpillars can be destroyed by rubbing od'the webbed galleries with a rough cloth. Badly attacked leaves should be cut and burnt. CONTROL MEASURES. Cutting and Burning of Leaves.—As soon as the first signs of the caterpillars are noticed on a coconut area, it is important that prompt D 50 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. measures should be taken to check the pest before it becomes serious. The simplest remedy in an early stage of the attack is to cut off and burn all infested leaves or parts of leaves which show any traces of the caterpillar galleries. The infested material must be burnt within l'i hours of removal from the palms. The cutting and burning of infested leaves is recommended because it is the most effective method of killing the eggs, caterpillars, and cocoons of the pest which are on the leaves. This measure has been scheduled under the Plant Pests and Diseases Ordinance, and must be carried out by all coconut growers who have the pest on their palms. Coconut growers should not wait for the pest to disappear, but must treat their infested palms as soon as any injury is noticed. The cutting of a few leaves at this stage will not injure the palms, and will save their own and their neighbours' palms from serious injury and loss of crop. Light Traps.—The cutting and burning of infested leaves will prevent the development of a large number of moths by killing the eggs, caterpillars, and cocoons which develop into moths. There will always be some moths left in an infested area, and these moths can be caught and killed by using light traps. These traps consist of an ordinary bullock cart oil lamp placed in the middle of a flat shallow pan containing water and some kerosene or coconut oil, -to cover the water. A mixture of half kerosene and half coconut oil is suitable for the lamp. The pan should be at least 24 inches across, and should be raised about 4 or 5 feet off the ground on a platform made of sticks. The oil on the water is useful for preventing the moths from escaping after they fall into the pan, as they are killed quickly by the oil. Acetylene lights may be used instead of oil lamps, but are more expensive. The oil light trap should be used at the rate of at least three to an acre, and should be used at the beginning of an outbreak on every favourable night, except on very wet nights or on bright moonlight nights. The use of light traps is not compulsory, but is recommended as a measure to be adopted at the same time that the infested leaves are being cut. It is important that the light traps should be kept clean so as to give a good light, and shoul be attended to regularly by responsible coolies. They can be stopped as soon as it is found that no more coconut moths are being caught. The coconut moths can be distinguished from other small moths which are caught in the traps by the fact that their COCONUT PALM WITH FRONDS SKELETONIZED BY CATERPILLAR OF XEPHAXTIS SEüIXOCA. To face page SO.  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 51 wings are rounded at the tips, whereas the wings of the other moths are usually pointed. Other Measures. — Bright fires are only useful if they are made of the coconut leaves which have the caterpillar pest on them. It has been found that the burning of small fires at night among the infested palms does not attract very many moths, and very few moths are killed, so that these fires are not recommended for general use at nights, unless the infested leaves cut during the day are burnt. Smoky fires made by burning tar and sulphur are probably of no real value in controlling the pest. It is more effective to cut and burn the infested leaves than to try and kill the caterpillars by smoke. Spraying the affected palms with a poison cannot be recommended for general use at present, until more extensive experiments have been made : so far as they have gone, a spray made up of 1 oz. Paris Green to 10 gallons water with 3 oz. lime added, gave positive results in favour of the sprayed trees. General Remarks.—All coconut growers should endeavour to keep their palms in as healthy a condition as possible by cultivation and manuring, and the coconut area should be kept clean so as to prevent the coconut beetle from breeding and attacking the palms. Vigorous palms are not so badly attacked by the caterpillar as weaker palms, and they are able to recover more rapidly after a caterpillar attack. All coconut growers should be on tho lookout for the first signs of the caterpillar pest, and should take measures to control it before it can spread over a large area when it is very difficult to control. All coconut growers in any district infested by the caterpillar should co- operate to keep the pest in check by seeing that their own palms are kept free from the caterpillar. J. C. HUTSON, Peradeniya, June 4th, 1922. Entomologist. SOME MINOR INSECT PESTS OF COCONUTS. The Spotted Locust (Aularches miliaris) has several times during tho last two years been reported as partially defoliating young coconut palms. This damage has usually ocenrred in fields which have been allowed to become ovrrun with thick grass and weeds, or in gardens where a variety of crops, including coconuts, is being grown on the 52 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. same plot of land. The young locusts when in the wingless stage usually cluster together in large masses on the ground or on low branches and can be beaten down or collected into sacks and crushed or submerged in water, In addition to the Coconut caterpillar (Xepltantis serinopa) there are at least three other caterpillars which are occasionally found in small numbers eating the groen leaves of coconut palms. Tho " Bagworm " (Psyche alhipes) covers itself with a case formed of small pieces of leaf and eats irregular holes in the leaflets, or some- times eats away portions of the leaflets until only the midrib remains. The cases should be collected and destroyed. The " Blue-striped Nettle-grub " (l'arasa lepida) sometimes feeds on the leaflets, at first nibbling away small portions of the leaf surface and later eating right through the leaf. The egg-shaped cocoons are sometimes seen attached to the leaves. The Hesperid caterpillar, Gangara thyrsis, occasionally attacks the leaves, but cannot be considered a pest. Scale Insects. —There are several species of scale insects which are found on the leaves of coconut palms, but the only species which calls for any mention here is the ' Coconut Scale," sometimes known as the "Transparent Coconut Scale" (Aspidiotus destructor). This scale is not the serious pest in Ceylon that it is in some other countries, as it seems to be controlled by parasites and by fungous diseases. The female scale is pale yellow and is usually seen as a minute yellowish spot under a thin papery covering. These scales are sometimes clus- tered so thickly on the underside of the leaves as to form a complete scurfy layer ovei the leaf surface. The upper surface of attacked leaves is usually marked with small yellowish spots which coalesce in a bad attack, giving the whole leaf a yellowish appearance, but this yellowing of the leaves may also be due to other causes. Small palms are sometimes attacked on the lower leaves, which can either be sprayed with kerosene emulsion, or removed and burnt. Attention to drainage, cultivation and manuring will maintain the vigour of the palms and help to keep down scale attack. See also :—Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture, No. 58 and leaflets Nos. 20, 21, and 22, COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 53 THE PLANT PESTS ORDINANCE. ORDINANCE No. 6 OF 1907. This Ordinance provides for the destruction of plant pests and for the sanitation of plants in the Colony. The Governoi- in Executive Council may proclaim in the Gazette ( I) insects, parasitic plants; and fungi to be pests, (2) the measures for prevention, arrest, and eradi- cation of such pests. The Governor may appoint for three years for any revenue district four to seven members to form a Plant Pests Board. The Government Agent (or the Assistant Government Agent) shall be its ex-officio Chairman, and he may appoint its Secretary and other officers, and may convene meetings of the Board. On being satisfied of the existence within its jurisdiction of a proclaimed pest, the Board may enforce the carrying out of such preventive or remedial measures as are specified by the Governoi- in the Proclamation and are approved by the Committee of Agricultural Experiments. The owner or occupier of the land affected is liable both criminally and civilly to carry out the measures notified to him by the Board. The Board may through the Chairman authorize right of entry for purposes of inspection. The owner is not entitled to any compensation in respect of damage occasioned by the measures ordered, but the Governor in Executive Council may grant compensation for plants destroyed. The Chairman of the Board must notify the existence of auy pest within its area to the Chairmen of Boards of adjoining districts, to the Government Agent, to the Colonial Secretary, and to the Chairman of the Committee of Agricultural Experiments. The following Proclamations have been issued and are still in force :— Pests. I.—(a) Red coconut beetle (Rhyncophor'ts ferru- gineus) (b) Black coconut beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) II.—The fungus Theilaviop- sis ethaceticus, causing the stem-bleeding dis- ease of the coconut tree Measures for Treatment. Destruction by fire of fallen or dead coconut trees. All uiisplit coconut stems more than twelve months old must be removed from fences, and the further use of unsplit coconut stem for fences is prohibited. (July and October, 1907.) Cutting out and burning the diseased parts of the tree, scorching the wound, and tarring it with hot tar, (February, 1908.) 54 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. Pests. III.—Shot-hole borer (Kyle- borus fornicaius) IV .— The fungus Phytoph- thorafaberi, where it is found to exist in Hevea V —The species of Phytoph- thora, which causes nut and leaf fall of coconuts Measures for Treatment. Prohibition of removal of tea plants (other than leaf for manufacture and tea seed,) or their reception by any estate within the prescribed area. (April 1912.) Collection and destruction by burning and burying with lime of diseased fruits. Excision and destruction by burning of diseased bark (cortex.) (March 1913.) Collection and destruction by fire of all diseased fruits and fallen leaves in affected fields, and destruction by fire of fallen or dead coconut trees. (November, 191 7.) THE ERADICA TION OF ILLUK. The Illuk'' of Ceylon is the lalang of the Straits (Imperata arundinacea.) In a paper read before the Ceylon Agricultural Society in 1906, The Hon'ble Mr. John Ferguson discussed this subject very fully. Mr. Ferguson refers to a method adopted by Tobacco Planters in Sumatra as described by Mr. Frederick Ponsforth :— The only efficacious remedy for getting rid of this pest was thought to be to dig and turn the soil completely over 2 to 3 ft. and then to pick out and destroy every particle of the plant by burning. This is, of course, an expensive method and, though effectual, can only be re- sorted to in exceptional cases. Moreover the planters observed that the Malay and othei- native settlers had a fairly efficacious and comparatively easy method of tem- porarily getting the better of any lalang surrounding their houses or which grew in their plantations. They did this by the simple process of pressing the lalang flat down on the ground whilst it was in full growth, with the aid of a bamboo pole upon which one or two men kneeled. They thereby caused the lalang to smothei' itself and this retarded its growth for a few months. I have witnessed this time after time in my wanderings among the Malay villages. The parent lalang grass flattened down in this way, died and rotted, and caused the land to be temporarily shaded from the sun, so that the new lalang shoots sprouting from the parent stock became too weak and frail to COCONUT PLANTER^ MANUAL. 55 penetrate the thick outer covering of the old grass. Hence, regarding this.and bearing in mind that lalang must have sun, the planters decided upon making use of the lalang itself as a weapon of extermination. The method thus adopted and which is now in use all over Sumatra is to mow down the lalang by aid of an instrument called by the Malay a " Tajak," which consisted of a sharp heavy blade about four inches broad by 1 | to 2 feet long, with a handle from 4 to 5 feet long sloping at an angle of 45° from the blade upwards when the tool is laid flat upon and parallel with the ground in a position for cutting. This long handle enabled tlie coolies to use the same constantly with- out suffering from that universal complaint among Asiatics of " Sakit Pingang" (or pain in the backj. The lalang was thus hewn down close to the roots by this tool, and was then gathered up in bundles and carefully laid upon one side ; the ground was then dug up or hoed about 4 to 6 inches deep sufficient to turn comp'etely over the thickest part of the lalang root ; the implement used for this purpose is a big hoe, called by the Malays a chunkol" and by the Tamil« a 'mamoty." It is usually very sharp and heavy and measures from 8 to 10 inches in breadth and is from 10 to 14 inches in length. The Malays and Tamils use a short handle from 2i to 3 feet long, but the Chinese use a handle from 5 to 6 feet long. Each coolie is alloted a certain task, which he has to complete for his day's work before he can get a full clay's pay. When the ground has been completely hoed over, it is then inspected by the supervising assistant planter in charge of the gang, and if the work is correct, permission is given to shade the ground with the lalang grass previously cut. This must be done very carefully, as not a vestige of ground must be visible to the sun's rays, otherwise the lalang will grow again. The above remedy is very effectual, and is not expensive, and it seldom fails to completely rid the soil of the lalang. The roots that are left in the soil rot, and serve to make the ground more porous and to manure it. The operation should be attended to before the lalang goes to seed. The ground should also be left covered by the lalang for several weeks, and then just before planting one's crop it is well to give the ground another hoe over and bury the now rotten grass. I have myself seen very excellent tobacco grown on lalang ground treated after the foregoing method, and it is well known how excessively tobacco take its richness out of any soil. Again, the tapioca plant is considered by the Malay and and Chinese cultivators to be a plant that can effectually combat against the grass if planted in a lalang field treated as above. I have often seen tapioca planted by tho 56 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. natives in fhe midestof a coconut plantation in order to kill the lalang which had sprung up. But this latter remedy is considered by some to be worse than the disease ; for tapioca is said to do a large amount of harm to the palms by way of impoverishing the soil. NOTE BY MR. W. H. WRIGHT. In reply to yours I am of opinion that Illuk grass can be got rid of by giving it successive weedings, the first to be a mamoty weeding 6 inches deep. After that, weed it by pulling it up with the hand, seven times successively as the blade grows. I have done this myself and have seen it done on several estates. The cost of the work will depend on the condition of the estate and the kind of soil in which the Illuk grasss grows. It should be easy to root it out after the third weeding. NOTE BY MR. WILLIAM JARDINE. Many thanks for sending me the interesting, well-written, and useful paper on the method adopted by the planters of Sumatra for effectually getting rid of that pest, the "Lalang-Lalang" of the Malays, and the Illuk " of the Sinhalese. I have no doubt that, with the grass growing close and thick and 6 feet high, the method adopted in Sumatra would prove effectual ; but it is rare to find such luxuriant growth in Ceylon. At any rate I have only occasionally come icross a few patches. Usually the growth is thinner and not more than 4 feet high. Many a sleepless night has the thought of tow to get rid of this grass caused me, and I doubt not other planters who have had to do with it. I tried the method of pressing down and rolling the grass, and that checked its growth for a few months. I tried cutting it down with grass knives and thatching the ground with the grass, but as there was not enough of it to cover the ground thickly it was only a partial success. There is a kind of '' Illuk " that grows freely in the Chilaw and Puttalam districts. It rarely exceeds 3 feet in height and has a tendency to fall over. The blades are thick and flaccid, and the roots surely penetrate inore than 8 inches. This kind might be effectually dug out for Rs. 25 an acre, provided a sufficient force of men could be got to do the work at the right time. The writer of the article on " Lalang-Lalang " says that the work should be done before the grass blossoms. I cannot say in how many years it does blossom. Where I have seen it left for quite some years I have never seen it blossom. But if once interfered with, either by cutting down or burning, it at once springs up in blossom ; and if this blossom is cut off, another follows within a month, and I think it would go on doing this till it exhausted itself and died, COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL- 57 A SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE METHOD OF EXTERMINATING " I L L U K " OVER LARGE AREAS ON COCONUT PLANTATIONS. BY MR. GERALD NICHOLAS. Practical coconut planters in Ceylon who have had to contend with this pernicious weed-grass know that speedy and complete eradi- cation can only be effected at a cost that is prohibitive. There are but two effectual ways of accomplishing speedy extermination that the writer is acquainted with, and they are both equally expensive :— 1. To dig and turn the soil completely over the whole of the affected area for rather more than the actual depth the roots have penetrated, and then carefully to pick out by hand every bit of tlie root and destroy it by fire. 2. To pen herds of cattle for five or six consecutive nights on the illuk in enclosures so compact that the animals cover the ground with their droppings. The latter plan, however, can be carried out only where the coconut palms are so advanced in growth that they cannot be knocked about, or otherwise damaged, by the cattle. Either of these methods will cost from Rs, 40 to lis. 50 per acre according to the character of the growth of the illuk. The second plan, however, would also considerably enrich the soil, so that a part of the cost would be covered by the manure. Sickling the illuk with grass knives, or mowing it down with scythes, then ploughing the ground, or digging and turning it up with the mamoty to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, and finally thatching the surface with the weed grass or several layers of coconut husks are effectual remedies, and if they are not quite so quick in their opera- tion, they are certainly less expensive than the two methods pre- viously described. But unless the ground is completely shaded by a heavy covering success is only partial. The writer has known illuk blades penetrate thin layers of coconut husk when the latter were not carefully laid down. But the difficulty is to get either coconut husk or the illuk grass in sufficient quantity near at hand, as the grass cut on the ground on which it grew seldom suffices to cover it to the required depth, and owing to their bulky natui'e the carriage of husks for a consideiable distance is expensive. On a coconut plantation it is not absolutely necessary for the well-being ofthe palm that the whole surface of the ground should be perfectly bare of herbage. 58 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL: When illuk has got a firm hold of the soil and a large area is involved, the simplest and cheapest plan of dealing with it is, in my opinion, to open lanes 10 feet wide along the rows of palms, thus :— Rows of coconut. 10 ft. lane. Spaces of Illuk 15 ft. wide. Rows of Coconut. 10 ft. lane. Spaces of Illuk 15 ft. wide. Hows of Coconut. 10 ft. lane. and to keep the lanes clean and free of illuk and other miscellaneous weeds by digging or weeding them as often as may be necessary, but the growth of ordinary grass herbage should be encouraged until a close sward is established. The best way to open lanes where the growth of illuk is strong, is to first sickle it down close to the roots, remove the grass and lay it on the intervening spaces, then dig and turn up the ground to the full depth of a mamoty. If Crotalaria is thickly sown in the lanes immediately after the fast digging it will shade the ground completely and help to suppress the growth of illuk, besides enriching the soil. The improvement effected by such a course of treatment on the condition of young palms which had been pre- viously stunted in growth and almost killed out by illuk was simply marvellous. By the sixth month they begin to make vigorous growth, and in eighteen months they are often far and away finer and bigger (liants than those of the same age growing in land free of illuk. By this time the illuk, also, will hove disappeared along two-thirds of the lanes and given place to a close sward, and it may be confidently ex- pected that by the end of the second year all the land (in one case over an area of 217 acres) will be absolutely free of illuk. As for the strips of illuk, between the lanes, it soon becomes apparent that con fining the weed grass to a space 15 feet wide has the effect of con- siderably weakening its growth, and it has been further noticed that a COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 59 climbing plant such as Kirimadu, Sing. (Ipomaea Cymosa) or Mikania scandens or a low shrub such as Papula., Sing. (Vernonia Zey- lanica) is inimical to it, the tendrils of the climber putting down the blades of illuk and the shrub pressing upon it and gradually chok ing it out. The spread of such friendly weeds should be encouraged, all other cheddy " growth among the illuk being rooted out ; and in less than two years most of the illuk will be killed out. The initial cost of opening 10 ft. lanes averaged in my experience Rs. 8 per acre, and subsequent digging or weeding, and rooting up cheddy " in the strips of illuk between the lanes Rs. 1 per acre per month, or Rs. 12 per year. The total cost of exterminating illuk by these measures is thei'efore about Rs. 32 per acre. The writer has had quite 12 years' experience in the treatment of coconut plantations over-run with illuk, and after careful trial of various methods he is of opinion that a simple, less expensive, or better plan of exterminating illuk over large areas on coconut plantations can scarcely be devised than that just described. At the meeting of the Board of Agriculture (March 5th, 1906) Dr- J. C. 'Willis, Director of the Botanic Gardens, said his experience of the grass in both the countries mentioned had showed him that the grass in Ceylon was hardly worth mentioning in comparison with what i^ was in parts of Malaya. It was no unusual thing there for one to look round from horizon to horizon and see nothing but thousands of acres over-grown with this grass, which grew in a way we never dreamed of in this country. One method of getting rid of it that had been discovered in the Straits was by mowing. With régulai' mowing, little by little, other grasses got a footing on the land, which was thus turned into decent pasturage. Referring to a certain estate in the Straits Dr. Willis said he was told that ten years ago it was a mass of illuk grass. It had been mowed regularly, however, with the result that the illuk grass had gradually given way to other grasses. Dr. Willis went on to advise the abolition of the custom of burning illuk, saying that burning did no harm to that grass and did much damage to everything else. If fire was kept away, and mowing resorted to, trees would grow up and the shade would grow over the illuk, causing it to die down. 60 COCONUT PLANTER'S MA.NÜAL. " C H I P P I N G " AS A REMEDY . A correspondent writing to the Tropical Agriculturist Supplement of April, 1907, says ;—-I have always found the following plan cheap and effective. Provide young weeders with sharp-edged weeding cun-andies and let them chip the illuk down level with the ground, repeating this over and over again as soon as say 3 inches of growth appears In three months or so all the roots below ground will die out. I have tried forking out the roots and othei- means of eradication, but found the chipping back process the cheapest and surest way. [The repeated cutting, as Mr. Bambec explains in his note on spraying, tends to exhaust the reserve food stored up in the thickened underground roots.] SPRAYING ILLUK. The August, 1907, number ofthe Tropical Agriculturist contains a communication from Mr. M. Kelway Bamber, Government Agricul- tural Chemist, in which he states that he and Mr. J. B. Carruthers, late of Peradeniya, conducted experiments in the spraying of illuk with Arsenite of Soda, which are reported to have proved successful. The difficulty in this treatment is that the substance is very poisonous and care must be taken that cattle do not eat any of the treated grass. The method of preparation and treatment aie as follows : — 2'88 lbs. washing soda are dissolved and boiled in 3 gallons of water ; 2 lbs. arsenic are slowly stirred in, the liquid being kept boiling till the arsenic is dissolved. This is then diluted to 20 gallons as a stock solution. For use 2 pints of this aie diluted with 5 gallons water and this 'is sprayed on the grass, or it can be put on by means of a cloth, one end of which dips in a trough on wheels containing the solution, the other trailing on the grass and kept spread out by means of a rod. The grass can be first burnt off. When new shoots are 8 or 9 inches high the wet cloth is drawn over them and kills them in 48 hours- This must be repeated every time new shoots appear, the object being to exhaust the roots of all the starchy matter and so kill the plants entirely. PLOUGïIING WITH TRACTOR. vÇpt&*Zfr To face pa¿s fö  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 01 ESTIMATE FOR OPENING AND WORKING 200-ACRE ESTATE FOR 10 YEARS. WITH EXPLANA TORY NOTES- [For this revision of the estimate by Mr. Gerald Nicholas appear- ing in the old edition of All about Coconuts " we are indebted to Mr. A. Karl Beven of Franklands, Veyangoda.] This estimate gives full details of expenditure, year by year, foi- ton years from the first clearing of the land, allows^ interest on such annual expenditure at 8 per cent, and shows that the aggregate outlay is Rs. 115,910 plus interest Rs. 87,1.32, or a total of Rs. 203,042, which gives Rs. 1,015 per acre; or, deducting the receipts in nuts up to the 10th year, Rs. 7150 per acre. ESTIMATE or COST OF PLANTING AND CULTIVATING 200 ACRES or COCONUTS UP TO 10TH YEAR, SHOWING ALSO PROBABLE RECEIPTS FOR SAME PERIOD. ANALYSIS OF ESTIMATED EXPENDITURE. 1ST YEAR. Value of Land, 200 acres at Rs. 150 .. 18,200 Seed Nuts at Rs. 100 Transport to spot at Rs. 10 Preparing and Tending Nurseries Felling, Clearing, Fencing Drains, Roads, Culverts Lining 25 by 25, and Holing 3 by 3 by 3 Filling in 24" and Planting Weeding, 8 months Watching Buildings Tools and Implements Superintendence Contingencies Rs. 30,000 1,820 182 120 4,500 500 1,260 350 2,400 360 1,000 400 3,000 308 Int. 8 % Rs. Total. Rs. Carved over Rs... 46,200 3,696 49.896 62 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. ANAL YSIS OF ESTIMA TED EXPENDITURE. Brought forward 2ND YEAR. Fence Drains, Roads, Culverts Supplies add Supplying Beetles or Other Enemies Weeding Watching Buildings Superintendence Contingencies 3RD YEAR. Same as above with an additional Rs. 200 for Tools and Cost of Weeding less by Rs. 500. 4TH YEAR. Fence Drains, Roads, Culverts Beetles and Other Enemies Forking 5' Circles Round Plants Weeding Watching Buildings Superintendence Contingencies Carried over 4,592 5,535 12,092 12,735 Rs. Rs... 46,200 180 300 120 150 3,000 360 150 3,000 240 7,500 7,200 80 200 100 420 2,000 300 150 3,0C0 250 6,560 Rs... 67,460 Int. 8 % Rs. 3,696 Total. Rs. 49,896 6,503 20,326 13,063 87,786 COCONUT PLANTERS MANUAL. 63 A N A L Y S I S O F E í Brought forward 5TII YEAR, Fence Drains, Roads, Culverts Beetles and Other Enemies Weeding Watchers Buildings Tools and Implements Superintendence Contingencies 6TH YEAR. Fence Brains, Roads, Culverts Beetles and Other Enemies Digging or Forking round Palms 7 Weeding Watching Buildings Superintendence Contingencies 7TH YEAR. Fence Drains, Roads, Culverts Beetles and Other Enemies Ploughing @ Rs. 2 (Half Estate; Purchase and Keep of Stock Weeding Watching 3 @ Rs. 15 Buildings Tools and Implements Superintendence Contingencies Carried over A TED E X P E N D I T U R E . Rs. 67,460 80 200 100 2,000 360 100 150 3,500 250 Int. 8 % Total. Rs. Bs. 20,326 87,786 6,740 7,562 14,302 80 100 100 560 1,200 360 3,100 • 3,500 250 9,250 8,907 18,157 80 100 •! 80 •j 200 • 1,500 • 1,200 540 100 250 • 3,500 250 7,800 10,244 18,044 . 91,250 47,039 138,289 64 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. Tools and Implements Superintendence Contingencies . Fence Drains, Roads, Culverts Superintendence Contingencies 3,500 250 10,470 Carried over Rs.. 108,940 ANAL YSIS OF ESTIMA TED EXPENDITURE. Brought forward 8TH YEAR. Fence Drains, Roads, Culverts Beetles and Other Enemies Ploughing @Rs. 21 (Half Estate) Keep of Stock Weeding and Clearing Watching Building Picking and Gathering Crop lis-. Rs. 91,250 47,039 80 100 50 .. 200 700 1,000 540 400 200 200 3,500 250 7,220 80 100 Ploughing @ Rs. F50 (Half Estate) .. 150 Keep of Stock 700 Picking and Gathering Crop 250 Weeding and Clearing 1,000 Watching 540 Buildings 200 Tools and Implements 100 Manure and Application 3,600 9TH YEAR. Int, 8 % Rs. Total. Rs. 138,289 11,641 18,861 13,411 72,091 181,031 23,881 LESS RECEIPTS : — COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. ANAL YSIS OF ESTIMA TED EXPENDITURE. Í.7-. 1OTH YEAR. Fence Drains, Roads, Culverts Ploughing at Rs. 1'50 Half Estate Keep of Stock Picking and Gathering Crop Weeding and Clearing Watching Buildings Tools and Implements Superintendence Contingencies 80 100 --. 150 700 350 1,000 540 200 100 3,500 250 Rs. Brought forward Rs. 108,940 72,091 181,031 9th year (average 15) : 210,000 nuts® R65 „13,650 10th year (average 30) : 420,000 nuts («> R65 „ 27,800 6,970 Total Rs... 115,910 15,041 22,011 87,132 ¡203,042 8th year (average 5) : i 70,000 nuts @ 1165 Rs. 4,550 i 45,500 5,G37 .Nett Cost of Estate ... ... Int. 8 % Rs. Total Rs. 51,137 Rs... 151,905 66 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. NOTES ON ESTIMA TE. It is assumed the soil is good, the climate favourable, and the land so situated as to admit of its being opened and worked at a reasonable cost. SEED NUTS, NURSERIES AND SUPPLIES.—The selection of seed nuts is a matter of primary importance. Attempts at economy in regard to the purchase of these are a great mistake and only "result in loss. Be sure that the nuts come from healthy, matured, heavy-bearing trees. Nuts of medium size and globular, with thin husks, I would choose. A n allowance of 30 % more seed nuts than the number of plants to the acre is necessary, namely 10 % for failures in the nurseries and 20 %for snpplies in the first 3 years. Do not have the nurseries in too shady a spot. When the time arrives for planting out, remove alternate plants in the nursery, so that those which remain for supplies will have more space to develop. FENCE.—The timber on the land should provide materials for a fence which should not cost much to run up, and, with occasional repairs, ought to last about 2 years, b u t a good strong live fence is a desideratum and should be got up as early as possible. Erandu (Jatropha curcas) interspersed with Erabadu (Erythrina indica) and Kapok (Eriodendron anfractuosum), a n d also Sapan (Caesalpina Sapan) and Mauritius Hemp (Furcrea gigantea) would make a neat and efficient fence. Kapok would also give a profit by its yield of cotton. Barbed wire fencing would be more costly, but more effective in keeping cattle off the estate. Once set down practically no upkeep, if quick-growing plants, such as Lunumidella (Melia dubia) ov Kapok be put down, The wire can be nailed onto thein, in perhaps the third year, when the posts show signs of decay. DISTANCE BETWEEN THE TREES.—25 ft. by 25 ft. is the proper dis tance. Anything more is a w-aste of valuable land, besides increasing the cost of cultivation, when carried on later, between the rows. The superfluous spaces afforded the palms cannot result in increase of in- dividual yield, and, therefore, the crop per acre, with the fewer number of palms, must be considerably less. Another disadvantage is the ground would be more exposed t o effects of drought. COCONUT PLATER'S MANUAL. 67 WEEDING.-—should not be neglected, as apart from other disadvan- tages, it would only increase the eventual cost. In the 2nd, 3rd anil 4th year I have allowed for 10 weedings a year. Thereafter 8. It is advisable to have clean circles round the plants. Say 6 feet radius. Between the rows encourage the growth of leguminous plants. I do not consider it necessary or advisable that the surface be clean weeded, although there are many in favour of it. When the time comes für ploughing uo humus is added to the soil, and on undulating land it will be found that the wash is great and the rich surface soil is gradually carried away to the low-lying parts. BUILDINGS,—A sum of R1,000 is p-it down for temporary bungalow with wattle and daub walls anda thatched roof : also a set of coolie lines. 4TH YEAR. DIGGING ROUND PLANTS.—By the 4th year the holes will have filled up to a level with the surface, and the soil within the bare space round the plants might now be loosened to a depth of about 9 inchesj and for this purpose a 12-inoh three-pronged digging fork will generally be found the most serviceable. 5TH YEAR. SUPERINTENDENCE.—An increase of R500 is allowed. WEEDING.—should cost a great deal less in the fifth year and still less in subsequent years, but from the 7th year onwards there will be an increasing quantity of ''droppings" from the trees, and provision is made for their disposal preparatory to burning or burying. 6TH YEAR. BUILDINGS.—The building of a permanent bungalow might now be considered, and accordingly the moderate sumof R3,000 is allowed for the election : but the cost will, of course, be in proportion to the size and style of the building. R100 are also put down for coolie lines. 7TH YEAR. PLOUGHING t h e whole surface might now advantageously super- sede digging round the plants, one-half the estate being so treated every year, for it would be quite sufficient if the soil were ploughed in alternate years. STOCK.—Three or four pairs of draught bullocks or buffaloes would be needed for this. Ois COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL- 9TH YEAR. COST AND APPLICATION OF MANURE.—If it is desired to get the trees into full bearing earlier than they would if left to nature, recourse should be had to manure. This is a large subject and cannot be dealt with in a few lines. To be brief; no provision is made for the purchase of stock other than draught bulls or buffaloes. Once the plantation is well established and the plants above the reach of cattle, the advantages of having a herd are many- An inexpensive method of manuring and good results are obtained by tethering two head of cattle to each tree for 10 nights. At the end of this period spread out the droppings over a circle 12 to 14 ft. diameter, sprinkle 6 lbs. bone dust over it, and turn over to a depth of 9 inches. In my estimate I have put down in 9th year a manure mixture to cost Rs. 130 a ton on the estate—8 lb, per tree. This to be applied to the backward trees TRENCHING.—Contour trenches, in sections 20 ft. x 5 ft. x 15 ft., are necessary where the ground is undulating—cut at right-angle to the slopes and embracing them. I have made no provision for trenches, but there may be a saving on roads, culverts or other items to meet the cost, as well as that of propping bunches. RECEIPTS.—My estimate of crops is only under most favourable conditions. In many reputed districts for coconuts, it is nearer 15 years before appreciable returns can be expected. In the 20th year there should be no difficulty in harvesting 800,000 nuts and over, and, with liberal cultivation and manuring, a million obtained evantually. [The question of growing catch crops, such as manioc, &c, during the first year or two, is one about which there is much difference of opinion. From one point of view it is not economic to allow the land lying between the rows of a newly p.anted estate to lie idle, and use should be made of it until the palms require the full feeding area—or at least as long as the catch crops will grow and yield satisfactorily without interference from the coconut roots below and fronds above. From tbe other point of view this is considered an objectionable prac- tice as robbing the soil of fertility which should go to nourish the palms. Of course, if catch-cropping is practised any loss of fertility in conséquence must be made good by manure. Mr, A. E. .Rajapakse (whose estimate follows) thinks it possible to secure a nett return of Rs. 1,500 from the 200 acres by growing catchcrops in the first year, after which he would discontinue growing them.] • Tfea-'»t___^äPr *«*_3ß ^_ i *'••«• s 1 P ili oa Cd o H O B. O **; *>' mm  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 69 ESTIMATE BY Mr. A. E. RAJAP AKSE. _V._ff. —This is for land situated in the dry zone. The figures are based upon actual expenditure incurred. DESCRIPTION OF WORKS. 1ST YEAR. Value of land 200 acres at Rs. 100 18,000 selected nuts @ B,s. 120 Preparing and Tending Nurseries Felling and Clearing @ Rs. 25 Drains, Roads and Bridges Cost Int. 8 % Rs. Rs. •• 20,000 2,160 250 Total Rs. Barbed Wire Fence Lining 27' by 27' Cutting Holes 3' by 3'by 3' (12,000 5,000 500 2,000 250 Holes)® 10 Cents 1,200 Filling and Planting 750 3 Weedings for 9 months 2,000 2 Watchers @ Rs. 15 360 Tools, &c. 200 A Cart and a Pair of Bulls with Upkeep 750 Superintendence and Allowance 1,000 Buildings 1,500 Cangany @ Rs. 25 300' Contingencies 500 38,720 3,097 2ND YEAR. Fence nil Drains, Roads and Bridges 500 Supplies and Supplying 100 Beetles and Other Enemies 180 Weeding and Cultivating round Plant- 2,400 Upkeep of the Pair of Bulls and the Carl 300 Buildings 41,817 Watching Cangany Superintendence, &c. Tools Contingencies Carried over Rs.. 100 360 300 1,000 50 500 5,790 3,808 44,510 6,905 9,598 51,415 fO . COCONUT PLANTER'S MA.NÜAL DESCRIPTION OF WORKS. Brought forward 3RD YEAR. Same as '2nd Year 4TH YEAR. Fence Drains, Roads and Bridges Weeding Digging and Forking round Plants Beetles and Other Enemies Buildings Uprooting of Stumps Upkeep of Cart Superintendence Cangany Tools Contingencies Watching 5TH YEAR. Fonce Drains, Roads, earing. By these means you could fairly find out whether the figures supplied are approximately correct. Ascertain the number of nuts per candy from the estate books if the figures are available ; otherwise use your experience and discretion as to what it is likely to be, by the size of the nuts, ifec. Divide the crop by the number of nuts per candy and you will get the number of candies per annum. Multiply that by the average price of a candy i wtSRM ''Q^B.:mM t or. o. í **'3(ss •>'<  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 75 of copra. That will give you the gross annual income of the bearing portion of the estate. Subtract from the gross annual income the expenditure per annum on the bearing portion of the estate. If the figures are not available from the estate books, the figures of the working of coconut estates, similarly situated, will supply you with the infor- mation that is required. Tho gross income per annum, less expenditure per annum, will give you the nett income per annum. The nett income, into 10 years' purchase equals value of the bearing portion of the estate. Add to this the value of noil-bearing acreage and the acreage of the vacant land, and you have the value of the whole estate. When coconut estates are above the average, the value is about 12 years' purchase. A. W. B. Another well-known planter writes:— The method usually adopted iu valuing a coconut estate is to base your calculation on a 10 years' purchase, t- On most estates run on modern lines figures are usually available to work on. Otherwise a census of the trees must be taken and the estimate of crop made by going carefully through the estate and estimating the nuts per tree by taking what oue considers average bearing trees. In this case the number of trees is multiplied by the number of nuts per tree and crop for the year arrived at. By this means the estimate of crop is close enough for purposes of valuation. For example, let ns suppose that an estate of 100 acres yielding 3 candies per acre, costing Rs. 30 to produce, has to be valued. AVe proceed as follows:— Take the price of copra as Rs. 60 per candy, and Rs. 30 as the cost per candy. Then the nett profit per acre per annum would be Rs- 30 and the valuation would be arrived at thus:—100 acres x 3 candies per annum * Rs. 30 profit per candy equal Rs. 9,000 per annum, At 10 years' purchase the estate would therefore be worth Rs. 90,000. A.D. 76 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. EXTRACTS FROM A PAPER BY THE LATE MR, WILLIAM JARDINE. (Written in 1905.) The cultivation of the Coconut Palm is now so universal in all tro- pical countries that it is next to impossible to discover its original habits, and there is no authentic account as to when tbe first coconuts were drifted to the shores of Ceylon. Those who wish for information on this head, and are curious as to the traditions concerning the Coco- nut Palm, will fi»d it all set forth in the introductory portion of Fer- guson's "Coconut Planters' Manual." So far as Ceylon is concerned, the reliable information available points to the Dutch as the people who really began the systematic planting and cultivation of the palm; and once planted f.iong the seaboard it has been regularly maintained by tho dwellers on the land. The old idea that it would not thrive far from the influence of tlie sea breeze is exploded, as it grows well all over the low- country, where the soil and rainfall are suitable, and even in sheltered valleys at an elevation of 2,000 feet, as in the town of Badulla. We must also give up the poetic fancy that the coconut tree stretches out towards the sea because it loves the briny breeze. The truth is, that the tree is a lover of light, and will bend in any direction to reach it ; and as there is no obstruction on the seashore it naturally bends in that direction and would do the same if the open space were inland. So sensitive is it to shade of tho lightest that it instinctively bends away from it, and instances may be seen where tho tree has grown almost horizontally till outside the influence of the shade, before it assumed its upward growth. For the success of a Coconut Plantation the essential is tho right kind of soil; that secured, all else is easy and sac- cess assured ; that missed, leads to constant trouble, increased expenso, and often to failure and loss. It is marvellous how men will go on planting lands utterly unfit, though they have constantly before their eyes the failures of others on like soil. If a census could be taken of the acreage of all bad lands planted, which never have paid and never can pay, it would be scarcely credited. When land-unsuited for the successful growth of coconut has unfortunately been purchased, and even gone as far as tc be cleared, the cheapest thing for the purchaser is to let it revert to jungle. The loss of the purchase money would bo as nothing compared to the constant drain should he decide to cultivate it. DESCRIPTION OF LANDS.—The best soil is, of course the alluvial de- posit on the. banks of rivers, where the land is periodically flooded for a few days; fortunate, indeed, is the possessor of such land. Tho next hest is a deep sandy loam, and 75 per cent, of sand is not too much. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 77 Un such land the trees grow rapidly and come, into bearing early and respond readily to manuring. After this comes a dark chocolate loam, either alone or mixed with quartz or largo stones; or a brown soil also mixed with quartz and stones. These soils though they may be rich are, owing to their greater tenacity, not so good for the growth of coconuts, as the trees are slower in growth and take perhaps 12 to 15 years to como into good bearing. Avoid as you would your worst enemy, cabook, clay, and gravel soils, for they can never mako successful or paying estates. Provided there is sufficient natural drainage, the flatter the land the better. Moderately steep land, if of good soil, is not to be despised though the cost of all works will be slightly enhanced. RAINFALL.—From 60 to 80 inches a year, well distributed, is what suits the coconut tree best, though it will thrive and bear well with SO inches on deep free soil, whero the roots can travel easily in search of water. Less than 50 inches is perhaps hardly sufficient even on the most suitable soils. It has been said that a rainfall of 100 inches and over sends the tree to leaf and diminishes fruit production. I have not found this so. I know lands receiving np to 160 inches a year which compare well with those receiving only 80. If the soil is good, tho extra rainiall doe_; not seem to do harm. NURSEKIES —Whero any large extent of lands is to lie planted if is not possible- to get nuts from selected trees for sowing in a nursery, though this might be done for raising plants for supplies. When select- nig from a heap fully ripe nuts should be chosen, the water in which gives a metallic ring when shaken ; thoy should he of medium size, and smooth and gltbular as they can be got, as such nuts have generally thin husks and are borne on a short fruit-stalk, and the trees are good bearers. The site of a nursery should be level and not far from water as the nuts must be liberally watered during dry weather. Cut a , trench say 4 feet wide and 8 inches deep; remove all the soil and put in tho nuts touching each other, with the stalk end upwards; put 'n soil and fill in all interstices, ramming in the soil with a stick; water liberally and then put in more soil, leaving only two inches of the top of the nut exposed. I have found this method the most successful. A great deal has been written as to the best position in whicli to lay down nuts in a nursery. My observation is that it makes very little dif- ference whether placed with the eye end upwards, on tlie side, or the .eye end slightly elevated; they seem to grow well in all positions. LINING.—The base lines should be laid with a lining instrument as bad lining remains as long as tho estate lasts, a witness to the careless- ness of the Superintendent. All distances, from 24 by 24 feet to 30 by 30 feet apart, have their advocates ; I think __(i by 28 feet apart a good distance; the tree, except on the richest soils, have ample room to grow, 78 and there is no unnecessary loss of space. I have not found that trees planted 30 by 30 feet apart bear any more nuts than those planted 26 by 26 feet; and the loss of 16 trees an acre is a serious matter; and this becomes very apparent when, in manuring, there are only 48 trees per acre from which to expect crops from. Never plant nearer than 24 by 24 feet,, but too many of the ignorant villagers plant so close that it is impossible for the trees to bear till they are about 30 years old, when they are able, through the pliability of the stems, to sway out in various directions in search of light. This is one of the things the Ceylon Agricultural Association should give its attention to. In tho interest of tho people a law should be passed forbidding any one to plant coconut trees nearer than 24 by 24 feet apart; and I would even go further and prohibit their being planted under jaks, mangoes, bread- fruit, &c. The triangular method of planting, by which 90 trees can be got into an acre instead of 70, will, I have no doubt, recommend itself to the goiya, who has an insatiable desire to cram into an acre as many plants as he thinks he can get to grow, regardless as to whether they will bear. To me, one of tho greatest recommendations of planting in squares is the extra space between every four trees which admits of more light and sun getting to the ground; a coconut tree can hardly have too much sun and light. HOLING.—Three feet cube should be the standard, a yard every way. PLANTING.—Where plants have been raised by laying the nuts on their sides, fill the hole with 18 inches of good soil and put the nut on the surface, pressing it into tbe soil for about one inch, steadying the plant with a stick driven into the >ide. of tbe hole and tying the stem to it. This will keep the eye or sprout free from contact with the soil, where it would be liable to the attacks of the white ant ; when the plant is well rooted fill in to cover the. nut. Where plants have been raised in a nursery, with the eye end up, fill the hole two-thirds, and when planting bury tho nut to within one inch of the surface of the soil in the hole. In both cases there will remain about a foot of the hole to be gradually filled in by weeding and wash. It is not uncom- mon to see plf-nts put at the bottom of a three-foot hole, and where the soil is at all hard, the plants, when six or seven years old, have a poorly developed stem and the hole be still two feet deep. This only shows what a hardy plant the coconut is, and what unkind treatment it will survive. There are some soils so retentive of moisure, where the water percolates so slowly, that the least depression retains it for weeks, even with a deep drain within a few feet of it. In sueh a case the only way plants can be raised is by filling the holes right to the sur- face, and when putting in the plants, burying tbe nut and four inches of the stem ana filling in the soil again to the surface, so that no water COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 79 can possibly lodge; in this way they grow well. Drains should be cut where found necessary. I am doubtful if it is advisable to drain and plant in really swampy land and old paddy fields; the cost is great to do it thoroughly, and the results doubtful, in my opinion. TREATMENT OF THE PLANTS FOR THE FIRST FIVE YEARS.—The practices are many, from permitting the jungle to grow up for a 'ew years and then cutting it down, then cleanweeding the whole surface. The latter is raro except where grown with cocoa or tea. The accepted method is to allow the grass to grow, keeping down weeds and jungle growth, and keeping a radius of from three to four feet round the plants clean weeded. I think if in fhe second year this radius were increased to six feet, it would bring or, the plants much faster. I have in my mind's eye several patches up to ten acres, which were kept clean-weeded from the time of planting till the fifth year; now that the trees are ten to fifteen years old they show a growth of quite five years over the others planted at the same time, but having only a radius of three or four feet kept clean round each plant; they also came into bearing four to five years beforo the others. I should mention that the ground was not exposed to the full force of the sun, as cocoa in ono instance and Liberian coffee in others wcr_> grown for four years. If catch crops like cotton or mani- hot were grown with the coconuts for four years, necessitating the ground being kept clean, I am convinced it would pay well to do it. PLOUGHING.—Where the soil is light and free, ploughing could be done with benefit in alternate years, after the trees have attained their eighth year; but where soils are stiff and they are in the majority in some districts, we have neither the ploughing nor the cattle capable of doing the work effectually. The only other way to loosen the soil is to, say once in three years, dig it over about six inches deep with mamoties, burying all grass and weeds in the process; and where the soil is de- ficient in it, scattering broadcast about a ton of freshly-slaked lime per acre. If at the same time, the seeds of some nitrogen collecting plants were sown, it would materially lessen tlie cost of the work, as so much nitrogen would be added to the soil when the plants were cut down and buried. When a steam digger conies to be placed upon the markot it will be a boon to Coconut Planters. PROPPING.—This is an absolutely necessary work, from the time the tree begins to bear till the 15th or 20th year, according to the nature of tho soil. Each bunch needing it is propped up with a forked stick finely pointed; the forked position is inserted between the nuts till it catches the fruit stalk. It is then slightly raised, so that tho weight is partly lifted from the fruit stalk, and the sharp point in- serted into the stem ef the tree, the weight of the hunch keeping it in position. Why it should he necessary to support the fruit of the 80 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. coconut, in its early years, in this way, I am unable to say; hut it seems to indicate a weakness, due perhaps to something lacking in onr soils. Can any of our numerous agricultural chemists say if there is nny chemical that can be added to our manures, capable of toughen- ing the fruit-stalk? Where jungle is scarce propping is rather costly. MANURING —Ceylon soils, as a rule, are poor, aud to rest satisfied with tho returns nature gives, is. in the case of coconuts, bad policy. If we want heavy crops we must put into the soil the manures neces- sary to produce, them. When should I begin to manure? So soon a* yon see that your plants need it. If there is a child or an animal suffer- ing from inanition you do not say: "Oh! you are too young to bo fed up, it may do you harm, and it would be wrong to accustom yon to nourishing diet." This is practically the argument of those who say you should not manure young coconut trees; but you at once treat the child or animai in a rational way and give it the food suited to its con- dition. So sliould you do to your plants. Some want assistance earlier than others; and when a person can afford to do it he should begin manuring before his trees show by scanty heads of leaves and reduced crops that they arc lacking food. Manure half the estate each year, for I know of no manures except coarne bone oust which will last un- exhausted longer than two years, and on no account should the trees be allowed to fall into P. poorer condition than that in whicli they were maintained by the manure. There are many Agricultural Chemists now in Ceylon, so there can be no difficulty in ascertaining the right manures to apply. Without doubt cattle manure is the best, but much of that is not available, as pasture outside the estate is rarely to be had, and although the passing of herbage through the intestines of an animal makes it more readily available as food for plants, the grazing of cattle on an estate, and concentrating the droppings to one part, is after all only "robbing Peter to pay Paul." It adds nothing to the soil, but tends rather to exhaust it too soon. Many persons with the means have not the courage to spend money on artificial manures, fearing that their money may be lost. This timidity arises from ignorance, for those who have used artificial manures know that when the proper manures are used and judiciously applied, they always give remunerative returns. Again, ignorance makes many impatient and disheartened; they appiy manure and expect to see results in crop within a year, forgetting, or not being aware, that it takes quite six months before artificial manure becomes to any extent available to the tree, and that it takes a year from the setting of a nut to its ripening, also that on poor lands the. first application is almost all appropriated for the building up of the con- stitution of the tree and that it is not till after the second application that results in crop are seen. Others object : "If we begin to manure we must contume it" : that certainly you must, and if the money in- COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL« 8t vested in manure yields 25 to 50 per cent. I fancy most persons would desire to continue it; various nitrogen-collecting plants, through the praiseworthy efforts of the Royal Botanical Gardens' staff, are now being grown experimentally, and no doubt we shall soon have reliable information as to cost and results. It is necessary to remind owners that manuring does not only increase crops, but prolongs the life of the trees for probably from 20 to 30 years ! ENEMIES oi THE COCONUT PLANT : WHITE ANTS.—These are not veiy destructive except on old lands where no junglo has grown for many years; where they have decaying timber aud roots to feed upon they rarely do much harm to plants. Many remedies have been proposed, but I have found the following effective:—Place hait a quart of salt under the nut of the plant and keep it in its placo by a stake driven into the ground, tying tbe stem of the plant to the stake; no earth should come in contact with the nut, and after the plant is thoroughly rooted earth may be gradually filled in; mild showery weather should bo chosen for this. A very old and experienced hand recommend« dipping each nut into a thick strong mixture, of sait and cow dung; a pinch of corrosive sublimate added would be an improvement. WILD PICS.—Whero these are numerous they are very destructive and capable of destroying almost every plant in a clearing within a week of planting out. Tho only remedy in such a ease is six months before putting out the palms, to plant up the clearing with manihots and sweet potatoes; the pigs being fond of these will confine their attention mainly to them, and do the minimum of harm to the coconut plants. Where not so numerous a reward of Rs. 5 and the carcase will send a good many Shikaries on tiieir tracks. PORCUPINES..—These are very wary and destructive animals. The following plan, for their destruction, was tried with marked success on an estate near Ambalangoda. Take a few coconuts that have germi- nated sufficiently to largely develop the fuzz-ball inside the nut; split the nuts with ;i clean stroke of a sharp axe, and into the fuzz-ball mix about two tea-spoonfuls of "rough on r a t s " ; close the halves together again and tie loosely with a piece of jungle creeper Leave these in tho tracks of tho animals; so long as there is tbe least taint of the human hand they will not bo touched, but after the animals will feed on the nuts and die. Seventeen were killed in this way within a fort- night. This plan would also suit for the bandicoot rat. CATTLE—are most harmful to young plants, for if badly eaten down by them the plants must be replaced with others, as they will never thrive or grow into good trees. The only protection against cattle is a good fence, and to allow noae into the estate till the plants are five years old. F 82 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL: Any onc desirous of going for coconut cultivation would do well to carefully consider my remarks on soils, and also disabuse his mind of the very prevalent fallacy, mainly amongst Europeans, that coconut trees come into bearing in six years. This occurs only on the finest soils, and even then the bulk of the trees are not in bearing till the 8th year. On inferior soils it takes 10, 15 and even 20 years for the trees to bear any- thing appreciable. The "goiya" who plants bis few dozen trees, and dues hot count Ihe value of his labour, can afford lo wait, but nol fhe capilalisl, who invests his money in iho hope of quick returns. Under the most favourable conditions the cost of bringing an estate into bear- ing is considerable; what then must it be when expenditure and com- pound interest go on accumulating for 15 years. The cost of producing the estate is then far more than it can ever fetch in tho market. EXTRACTS FROM A PAPER BY MR, A. K. BEVEN OF FRANKLANDS, VICYANGODA. SELECTION OP LAND.—Coconuts are supposed to grow anywhere and everywhere, bu_ this is a mistaken idea.. The object of most capitalists is to get as quick returns as possible from land at a minimum of expendi- ture. But the palm is not a product suited for acquiring rapid for- tunes : those who can afford to wait will be rewarded for their patience, for the successful growth of coconuts an average temperature of 80 deg. is required; and an average anil even distribution of 70 to lot) inches of annual rainlall is essential where the sm. is heavy, in the Chilaw am] I'nttalarn districts, a free soil and the presence of water near the sur- face enable the palm to tbrivo with a much scantier rainfall. In some of the higher districs, with an abundant rainfall, coconuts grow; but a low temperature and excessive moisture hinder the production of fruits. Next to rainfall and temperature attention must be directed to the nature of the, soil. The best, of course, is to be found in alluvial flats and alón.; tho banks of the rivers, where tho land is annually flooded for a few days. But land under these conditions is not plenti- ful. The next best soil is a sandy loam. Tliere are many others on which the palm thrives: and the richer and deeper the soil the less will be the subsequent expenditure in maintaining its fertility. The only two soils on which the palm, unless heavy expenditure is to be faced, refuses to grow profitably are hard gravel and stiff clay. The latter is the worst to deal with, and one I would avoid altogether. Trees on the former, however, to my knowledge, have responded to cultivation and can and will yield profitable refurns, wmvm^m1'^^ umwmmtïï I-* A*!«N£;'"H_MâR !% 'f»-•&=_'/'"»RI feäStj* ¡s <-""!*. wr,:: 4 if.;*' -• v.;¡ «TV'1 '..«"V W$W&M%$'^§  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 8:! SEED NUTS.—Tho next subject to engage attention sliould be the selection of seed nuts. It is of paramount importance that the greatest care be taken that only the best nuts be got for sead. Time, trouble and expense shoujd not be grudged, for a great deal of tho future of the plantation depends on the trees from which the seed nuts have been chosen. I should choose nuts from trees ranging from 20 to 50 years of age. That is those in their very prime. The tree should present a vigorous growth and have large crowns carrying the bunches of fruit on well-set short, stems. It is well to avoid those trees that show a tendency to drop their nuts, however large or numerous ; and those with scanty or drooping fronds. There is a prejudice in favour of a large-sized nut, but 1 prefer thoso of a medium size, since one has to take a commercial view of the product. Where the nuts are excep- tionally large, it follows that there would be fewer on a bunch than whero the nuts are of medium sizo. The difference in numbers when acres are considered will be very considerable, as nuts are sold by the thousand, only very small ones being rejected. In weight, too, if you turn your nuts into copra there is a great advantage. Considering their numbers, with medium over large nuts, I would choose therefore medium- sized nuts, globular in shape and with a thin husk and a thick kernel for the nursery. THE NURSERY.—The method of laying out the nursery is known to most of tis. But I would emphasize the need of special precautions to avoid a site in which white ants are likely to show themselves, or one with too densa a shade. The latter causes the plants to be "spindley." These feel the shock when planted out in the open. There are two inothods of laying the. nuts in the nurseries; horizontally—the positio'i tbey lie in when fallen from a tree—and vertically with the " eye " up. The lalter system I do not favour, as tho retention of water in the de- pression, at the stalk end, when the nut is in the upright position, is liable to cause rot, to which the germ, directly below it, may suc- cumb. When laying tbe nuts on their sides, do not bury them deep. They should '>t_ only half-covered; and both now and when planting Ihein out later in situ let the stalk end be kept slightly abovo ground. The husk toughens and offers some resistance to white ants; but if they are in the nursery they secure a lodgmont and give no hope fco the plant in the field. If the stalk end, which is the tender spot, is abovo ground, tho mischief can be easily detected. It would be wiso to reject thoso plants tardy in shooting out or springing up. LINING.—Strict accuracy should be shown here, not because a plant out of line by a foot or two would suffer, but because the appearance of tho field would be spoilt, and the field could not be conveniently ploughed and harrowed. I advocate the usually adopte*, distance 25 ft, x 84 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 25 ft. apart, and would avoid planting any closer, but in a very damp district 30 ft. x 30 ft. would perhaps be more suitable both to provide tor the rapid spread of the fronds and to secure heat and sunlight for the soil. HOLING.—This should bo carefully attended lo, and every effort should be made to give the plant a good start. Nothing less than 3 feet square and a depth of 3 feet should be provided. Coolies, when holing in undulating land, will persist in throwing all the earth on the lower side. It is well-known that tho richest soil is on the surface. Care should, therefore, be taken that at least the first 12 to 15 inches of soil be dug out and heaped on the lower side of the hole; the re- mainder banked up in a semicircle on the upper side. PLANTING OUT.—When the time conies for planting out, the plants should have at least four leaves—the hole should be filled up to within 12 to 15 inches of the surface with the richer soil and a basket of ashes, if avails ble. A secondary advantage of the soil being banked up on the upper side is that it would prevent a rush of water into the hole and the consequent displacement of the plant. It is now one of the advantages of planting tbe nuts on their sides in the nursery comes in. When planted out, to prevent the plants toppling over through wind or rush of water, two short stakes should be driven in cross wise over the nut and these keep it firmly in its place. Where there is excessive moisture, it is necessary to cut drains between tbe rows to carry off the water that may accumulate and stagnate, and also from the holes that are liable to fill. Avoid what one sees frequently done1—the dump- ing down of plants in deep holes, in which sufficient soil has not been put in. The roots should be cut with a sharp knife before the plant is put down, and they should not have to fight their way into hard soil. WHITE ANTS AND RA TS.—In the first stages of growth and until the plants have taken a bold of the soil and are independent of the nourishment thoy derive from the kernel and the husk, the chief diffi- culty that besets the planter is the destruction caused by white ants. An application of salt is beneficial, and so is the planting of an aloe seedling by the stem of the plant. The sprinkling of a handful or two of fresh jak or lunumidella saw-dust is also effective. But, perhaps, the easiest and surest remedy is the application of a solution of corro- sive sublimate on the husk—say a teaspoonful to a bottle of water. During the first five years, the wary bandicoot rat and porcupine prove yet mort serious enemies. The damage done by them is all the greater, because they do not appear on the field until the plant is, to a certain extent, advanced in growth. The porcupine prefers to make a meal off the plant just when it shows a stem above ground. My experience of the bandicoot, waiting until the plants are 4 or 5 years COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 85 of ago to begin their destruction, may bo exceptional, but in a field of 7J acres, no less than 150 plants were destroyed within a few weeks. The field was under cinnamon at tho time. PROTECTION AGAINST CATTLE.—It will not be out of place to, urge tho necessity for taking steps to protect plants, during tho first five years of their existence, from the attacks of cattle. They do a tre- mendous amount of damage—the growth of plants eaten down by them is seriously retarded; and such plants will seldom thrive and deve- lop into good trees. Badly attacked plants sliould be rooted up and replaced if possible by plants of tho sanio ago as those in the fiold. Tho advantages of cattle on a plantation are great, but it is nob advisable to bring them on to the land until after the plants are free from the daugei of being attacked. Ns pains sliould be spared to pro- tect plants during tho first o years against tho bandicoot, the porcupine and cattle, foi it is of paramount necessity that plants should start lo grow under the most favourable conditions. WEEDING AND GREEN MANURING.—The plants themselves need prac- tically only the clean-weeding of a eircle of say 5 feet in diameter. The application of wood ashes proves beneficial as well as a mulcil of green manure. Between the rows of plants I would only cut down the brushwood; and in order not to expose tho ground to the full force of the sun, tho growth of some leguminous plants offers a. double ad- vantage in enriching tho soil as well. A great object should bo to main- tain tho richness of the soil, remembering that the roots of tho palms are wide-spreading and surfaco feeding; and when the trees grow up they will require all there is to be had. The future welfare of the tree will bo gieatly helped by conserving the richness of the soil. Green manures can always be grown with advantage. There are soils which will not bo impoverished, to the detriment of the palm in later years, by tho growth of catch crops, but care should be taken to choose such aa are not too exhausting. Tho systematic application of manures will not bo necessary be- fore tho palm readies the bearing stage, nor even in the first few years of bearing. Ihe advantages of applying some manuro to stimulato those plants that are backward are obvious. Thoy need a helping hand aud timely help should secure uniformity in t h e plantation. I shall n o t touch further on the all-important subject of manuring and on tho great benefits to both trees and crop from the application of suitable manures. It is a large subject and I prefer to leave it to sonic other member to dea! with it. TRENCHING.—A regular system of trenching begun early would greatly beuefit the trees. On steep laud, countour trenching before plant- ing would conserve sod moisture. In theearlier years, it would be suffj- 86 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. cient on ordinary flat or undulating land fo have narrow trenches, sav 2 feet wide and 18 inches deep between the rows of trees to hold up water and to prevent wash in the porlions of the land that require them. But when the trees have developed, it would be advisable to have contour trenches, embracing every little rise in the land and through- out the undulating section. Even where the surface is fairly covered over wiih gra.s, and the slope is hardly appreciable, a trench often reveals, after an averago shower, an immense amount of moisture that would otherwise have run to waste^ perhaps carried out of the land altogether. It is not only the water but the soil also that is often lost to the estate. The first object in trenching should be to conserve as much moisture ¡is possible on the higher portions. Then, the wider the trenches lower down, the greater the superficial area of soil reached snd the greater its porosity. It is usual to have trenches cut in section say 20 ft. long, ô It. wide, ana 12 to 15 inches deep, the soil being banked up on the lower side. Tlie advantage of having trenches cut in sections, with the firm ground 2 ft. between, is thai where they do not run at right-angles to the slope, they prevent all the water rushing to ihe lower end to accumulate there and probably burst the bund. It is to meet fliese two contingencies that the sections are of use, each section holding the water that conic from above it, to tho benefit of the plants .above and below. The bottom of the trenches should be as level as possible. If the trenches be gradually packed with husk, fallen branches and all rub- bish that can be collected, and finally receive a top-dressing of earth, the benefit will soon be realised. A similar system of trenehes carried on in alternate lines will help to cover the whole estate by degrees with a net-work of receptacles for moisture and manures within easy reach of every tree. ¡slowly but fcurcly the entire surface soil will thereby be worked. Nor should the cost of those trenehes be heavy, at least not to the practical planter who refuses to be guided by the contract rates which are paid by Government generally in their P.W.O., Railway, and Irrigation Works. 1 believe the rale is somewhere about 75 cts. to a rupee a cube. Now, 1 have had cut lens of thousands of feet of these trenches and navo found a cooly rblc lo cut three trenches, each 20 ft. x 5 ft. x 12 in., or 20ft.xiift.x15in.,inadayinamediumsoil. Thecostworksoutat only 12 els. a cube. Task work is welcomed by the men, as the better workers find no difficulty in completing their trenches and striking work at 3 and 4 o'clock hi the afternoon. VACANCIES.—These should be promptly filled up, and if uniforinity is to bo preserved, it is well to have advanced plants iu the nursery to take the place of the lost ones; but vacancies mean so much space wasted dOCONTJT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 87 and income lost. Where the plantation has grown beyond tho reach of cattle, and they are allowed on it, it is necessary to protect the sup- plies from destruction by them. Fencing with dead sticks is expen- sive in that it has to be frequently renewed. The method I have found most successful is to have a hedge of the much-abused lan- tana round the plant, planted in a circle ai couple of feet away from the hole. It is qirck growing, and may be protected by thorns so as to keep cattle off it until a stout hedge is formed. It can be trimmed down to the height of the growing plant and during drought it has the advan- tage of affording shelter and conserving moisture, while the prunings enrich tho soil. The cost of trimming the hedge once in six months is small. In a stiff soil the lateral roots thrown out by tho lantana open up the soil. It grows on the surface and can usually be rooted up by baud, the roots loosening the soil. Finally, when the coconut plants are beyond the reach of cattle, the hedge is rooted up and buried in the plant-hole; or it is burnt after a week's exposure, and much potash, in which the lantana is very rich, is added to the soil. The vigorous and perfectly developed plants, which flourish within this live hedge, falsify the theory that the lantana impoverishes tho soil to the detriment of the plant. When saplings are planted in older plantations whose trees have taken possession of the land¡ it will be of advantage to cu* a narrow drain outside the coconut-hole and say 5 feet away from the plant, all round it to a depth of 15 to 18 inches. This would help in checking the roots of the trees immediately round from interfering ivith the growth of the young plant. [The section on pests and diseases arc omitted.] IN CONCLUSION.—The results of scientific research arc now being applied practically to almost every field of human knowledge. Agricul- ture is now exalted to a'science. The cultivation of coconuts has long been purely experimental. Wliile we would welcome all that scientific methods can do to improve the cultivation of this great staple product nf the. Island, we must remember it is practical experience whicli can alono test and use intelligently the theories of scientists. MEMO BY MR. A. !__. RAJAPAKSE MUT)ALIY"Ati. CLEARING.—Polling ami burning the junglo should be done early to as to have the land ready for planting a month or so before tho rainy season. All standing trees should bo cut as low as possible to assist lining and planting jn regular rows. LINING.—Iho lines should he perfectly straight. Trees planted in straight lines not only add to the appearance of the tstate, but greatly 88 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. facilitate the use of modern mechanical appliances as well as the allot- ment of tasks. DISTANCE.—The distance which is considered most suitable in good soils is 27 x 27 feet (60 trees to an acre), and in gravelly and poor soils 25 x 25 feet (70 trees to an acre). Direct sna-light is absolutely necessary for assimilative work in tho leaves, and growth and production depend on the amount of assi- milative work done by the tree. Therefore trees should be so planted as to prevent tbe leaves of one overlapping those of another. Trees planted 24 x 24 feet in good soils do not bear well till they are about 20 years old when the leaves begin to droop along the trunks and let in more light. HOLING—Holes should be 3 x 3 feet by 2} feet deep. A wooden frame 3 feet square, with diagonal bars and a hole at the intersection of the diagonals, for the peg to pass through, should be used to mark the position of the hole. The difficulty of locating the right spot to plant after the hole is cut could be met by adopting a simple device. This consists of a bar about 0 feet long with a hole in the middle and two holes at eithe¿- end equidistant from it. This bar should be slipped on the pog, so that it passes through the middle hole, and two smaller pegs are driven into the ground passing through the boles at the ends. Thus there would lie three pegs in a straight line at fixed distances from one another. Though the main peg is removed by cutting the hole its posi- tion could very easily be locatted by replacing the bar in position, so that in planting out the only thing to do is to place the bar in position and fix the plant vertically under the middle hole. Holes should be partly filled with surface soil mixed with ashes, and planted at depths vary- ing from 18 inches, on high land, which does jiot require trenching, to one foot and even less on low land, where trenches arc necessary. SEED-NUIIS.—Great care should be taken in the selection of seed- nuts. They should be collected from tho best trees on an estate. The trees should be from 20 to 40 years old, healthy, heavy bearing, drought-resistiî g, possessing short bunch-stalks, yielding good all-round nuts, etc. There is a \ariety of green round nut and a long rod nut amongs tlis common varieties found in the Island, which have been found to be the beat for planting. The nuts should be perfectly dry for planting. NURSERY.—The nuts should be placed in the nursery with their tops up. Though there is a difference of opinion on this point, this plan has bren adopted for the last 30 years with good results. Lute g?rffli«ater.s and unhealthy plants should be rejected when planting out. i COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 88 PLANTING CUT.—The young plaut is able io live ou the kernel and water within the nut foi about 12 months from time of germination. Tlierefore it is not necessary to wait for the rainy season to plant. Plants on germination, or a month or two after, but before roots are produced, couio be taken up and planted out a month or so before the rains without fear of loss. If the soil in the hole is dry at the time of planting it should be moistened with a potful of water alter tho plant is sot in the soil and covered with a layer of dry earth to arrest eva- poration. Tho field should be drained hefore the rainy season to enable tho surplus water to escape, if not a large percentage of plants will be killed by stagnant water. CATCH Cßors.—If tho coconuts are to come into bearing as fast as possible and iino healthy trees are to be established it is better that no catch-crops should be grown. But, on tbe other hand, if it is essential that some income should be obtained from the land to help to carry on the planting, one crop of cassava or other short-lived product, readily saleable at a profit, may he grown in the first year only. Beforo doing so it should be determined whether the labour conditions would permit of such a crop being grown without interfering with the work of the estate. Also if the profits of the catch crop would compensate for the loss of plant-food from the soil. If no catch crops are to be grown, Crota- laria or other leguminous plaut suitable to the district should be sown just after firing. This crop will not only feed oil the available plant- food and reserve it for the use of the permanent crop, but will check the growth of weeds. The green crop should be cut from time to time and used for mulching round the plants. About 6 feet round the plants should be cultivated twice a year immediately after every rainy season, till tho end of the 3rd year. Then if tlio trees are sufficiently grown, the whole land would be cultivated and all stumps uprooted. This cul- tivation sliould be repeated once a year till a plough could be put on tlie laud. AFTER TEKATJIENT.—To make- coconut estates pay it is necessary to manure them. If cattle manure is not available for the purposo a full mixture to supply ihe following ingredients:—Nitiogen, phosphoric acid and potash—should be applied. My experience is that organic manures are preferable to chemical or inorganic manures. The follow- ing is an all-icuiid suitable mixture: — 4 lbs. ground nut cako or castor cake 4 lbs. fish manure. 6 lbs. bone meal. 2 lbs. sulphate of potash. lo lbs. to c tree to be applied once in two years. «Jo COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. Alter or just before manuring the plantation should be ploughed or forked deep. This treatment is .sufficient for two years for wet districts with a rainfall from 75 to lOO, but another shallow ploughing a year after could be done with advantage. In dry districts where the rainfall is from 50 to 75 or less, an animal ploughing is essential and disc-harrow- ing during the dry months. In rainy weather grain crops of the leguminous o n e r should bo grown. It should be borne in mind tha'. the cultivation of coconuts is a business, and the owner of the land is the manufacturer or producer of copra. His capital is the stock of plant-food in bis soil and his machinery is his trees. His aim should be to produce copra at the smallest expenditure of labour and plant-food. His capital is a limited oue, which is hable" to be exhausted if not re- plenished from time to time to make good the exhaustion due to tho removal of copra. It must be remembered that 2/3 of a pound of copra is oil and the other 1/3 is poonac. The soil does not so much suiter by the lemoval of oil as by the removal of poonac. If therefore poonac can be purchased at a cheap rate it would be wise to use as much of it as possible in manuring the land. Coconut iiusks, leaves, etc., if removed off the land should be re- turned to it or sold at a price to enable some fertilizers to be used in place of thein. If they be returned to the land the soil will not only get back what it has lost but also what has been taken up from the atmosphere. The failure of some coconut estates during drought is due to the depletion of organic matter in the soil caused by the continuous removal of leaves, husks, coconut estates by drought tho very great importanco of the effect of the moisture in the soil on tho crop is not generally recognised. Ttus is partly due to the widespread root-systems whieh the trees possess, enabling them to draw moisturo from a wide area and from great depths and to .continue to live, although perhaps not to flourish, when the land appears everywhere dry and parched and when shallow-rooted plants like grass have long since died. But when we consider that not only- can the roots absorb no food unless this food is dissolved in water, buy 104 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. also that there is a continual movement of water, called the traaspira- tion current, from the roots to the le>aves, where it is lost by evapora- tion, and further that if this transpiration current be not maintained the leaves drooo and die, we begin to realise what ¡i tr'-mendons drain on tlio soil moisture growing crops are and how important it is to supply thein with enough moisture. This transpiration current has no visible effect because the wal-v evaporated at the surface of the leaves goes off in the form of invisible vapour, and this accounts for the common failure to recognise that such a current exists. The vigour of th • transpiration current varies with different plants, they do not all transpire the same amount of water, but consideration of a few of the figures arrived at by similar experiments will convince one that in all cases the epiantities of water withdrawn from the soil oy this means are enormous. For instance, measurements of the water transpired by ä sun-flower plant 3} feet high shew that 2 lbs. arc transpired in 12 hours. An average crop of cabbages transpires. 3 oi 4 tons of water per acre every day. An average wheat crop transpires 750 tons of water per acre during its period of growth, while a single oak tree accounts for over 700 tons in a year. Of special importance is the figure of 3j lbs. of water transpired by every square foot of grass land per day. Assuming that the grass were growing all the year round, the amount transpired by ah acre in each year would reach the enormous total of over 24,000 tons. AVith these figures before us, the importance of soil moisture anil the necessity for husbanding it to the utmost becomes apparent, and every agriculturist should make himself aceinaintcd with the various methods for preventing waste of water from his land. How TO PREVENT W ASTE OF SOIL MOISTURE. Before we can discuss this question wc must understand how soils lose water by other means than by the transpiration of living plants just described. For practical purposes we may take it that all the water in a soil is derived from rain which falls on its surface. Part of this rain soaks into tho soil and part runs off the surface without penetrating. If the surfaco is soft ncariy all tho rain soaks in, but very little pene- trates througii a hard surface. Since the water whicli runs oil tho surface is wasted we see already how we can prevent senne waste by keeping the suiface of the ground soft The rain whicli soaks into the ground sinks down through the small spaces between the soil particles until it either reaches the underground COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. IOS water level, or runs into a drain and is carried away. As the surface of the ground dries after rain the moisture in the lower layers rises to the top m the same manner as oil rises iu a lamp-wick by the capillary action of the very small holes, or pores, with which it is crowded. This suckling up of the water from below will go on until tho whole of tho water in the soil has reached tlio surface and dried off into the air, and wo have then a condition of drought. If we can break the connoctions between the tiny pores ol the soil, we can stop this upward flow of water. This breakage is very easily brought about by cultivation. All that is needed is that tho suilcco layer of soil sliould be kept in a loose and granular condition so that there are large air spaces between the par- ticles. The water cannot rise through large air spaces, with the result that althougii the loose surface becomes dry the rise of water froai the soil below is stopped and no more water is lost by evaporation. Mauj' people believe that by keeping the surface of the ground hard and well stamped eloivn the soil moisture is prevented from escaping, as though stamping the ground were equivalent to locking the door of the soil, but the truth is just the opposite. By pressing the earth hard, the particles are brought very close together, the tiny poi'es in each lump arc made to join those iu the next and a continuous channel of small pores is made loi the water to rise in and reach the surface, and once it reaches the surface the sun and wind soon dry it off and it is lost. It is only by separating the soil particles aud thus breaking the channels leading to tht- surface that the escape of moisture is ¿»'evented. Now we _.ee that a loose surface eloes good in two ways. It allows rain water to soak easily into the soil instead of running of! at tho surface and it prevents this rain water being sucked up again and lost hy drying in the sun aim wind. Other metliods of preventing evaporation of soil moisture are also practised. By spreading a layer of any loose material, such as straw--, leaves, piunings, etc., we get the same efl'tct as if we have a layer of loose earth. The moisture rises to the surface of the ground, but can- not rise through the large air spaces of the straw or other loose material, and so is not lost by evaporation. This practice is known as mulching, and althougii at times very useful it is not so effective as a layer cf loose earth. Coconut husks can he usefully employed as a mulch round newly planted trees. Young trees are more sensitive than old ones to lack of moisture owing to their less extensivo root development, and it is a good plan to cover the ground around them to a distance of 3 or 4 feet with husks' placed close together. They must, however, be carefully laid so as to cover tho ground completely, and any grass or weeds which grow up between them must bo at once removed. 106 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. Any method which shades the surface of the ground reduces the amount of evaporation, and for this reason shade crops are often grown to protect the surface of the ground until the roots of the main crop have grown to sonic depth and are not so dependent on the moisture near the surface. In considering the use of shade crops, however, one important fact is very often lost sight of, and that is the loss of water whieh results from the transpiration of these crops. We have already seen what enoimous quantities of water are transpired by growing crops, and although they shade tho ground and lessen evaporation from the surface directly beneain them it must never be forgotten that they are at the same time pumping large quantities of water out of the soil, often from a considerable distance, and may be more than undoing by this means the good they do by their shade. If, however, the action cf these shade c-iops be properly understood they can often be usefully employed. The principle which should govern their use is that they should not be allowed to grow continuously, and never throughout the dry season. A crop of low spreading habit should be chosen giving the maximum amount of shade to the surface of the ground. It shoulel be planted during the rains antl should be a quick-growing crop, which reaches niatuijty in a few weeks. Soon after the end ot the rainy season or as soon as a good cover is obtained it should be cut or up-rooted and allowed to he as a mulch on the surface of the ground all through tho dry weather. At the beginning of the next rainy season it sliould be dug into the ground as completely as possible, and a fresh crop planted for the following dry weather. Unless this procedure can be followed, and strictly followed, it is much better to leave such crops alone and rely on cultivation to prevent loss of moisture. Remember that a cut crop makes a good mulch, but a growing one a bad mulch. This brings us to the question of the effects of allowing grass to grow around coconut or other fruit trees. THE EVIL EFFECTS OF GRASS. It has already been noteel that growing grass causes a loss of water from the soil corresponding to many thousands of tons per annum from every acre. If the grass is grown for the sake of its own crop, as in land kept for pasture, this loss is unavoidable, and must simply be reckoned with as the requirement of a grass crop for moisture. But, if there is another crop upon the land, as in the case of a coconut estate, the great disadvantage of such a waste of soil moisture is at once apparent. The coconut tree needs abundance of moisture, and is usually planted on sandy lands, which are liable to long periods of drought. Under these circumstances, the practice of allowing a grass crop io ÙOCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 107 ¿lump thousands of tons of useful water out of the soil is the height of folly. Besides tiie injury growing grass causes by abstracting large quan- tities of water from the soil, serious harm is done in another way. It has been found that some substance is formed by the roots of growing grass which is astually poisonous to plant life. This subject-is being in- vestigated at the Duke of Bedford's Experimental Fruit Farm in Here- fordshire, England, and many interesting results have already been puo- lished. The conclusion come to by the experimenters is that growing grass round a tree is nearly the worst treatment to which it eau be subjected. The trees on the plot where the grass was allowed to grow lost their leaves and looked very unhealthy compared with those which were kept clean-weteied. In another experiment a clear space was kept within six feet arouuj each tree, grass being alloweel to grow outside of this space. It was found that as soon as the roots grew long enough to reach to the glowing glass tho tree began to shew signs of injury and could only bo restored to health by removing the grass as the roots ex- tended. This result proves that it is not sufficient to keep a clean space around each tree ; the whole surface must be kept free from grass so that the extending roots may nowhere come across a grassed area. The impossibility of applying manures to the trees when they are sur- rounded by grass is a further objection to its being allowed to grow. Manure applied under these conditions acts mainly as a fertiliser for the grass, and only a small portion of it reaches tbe roots of the coconut tree. Even if a trenca is dug for the manure anel is kept free from grass this manure loses a great deal of its value by being applied in such a small space, for it comes into contact with only a few of the roots of the tree. From every point of view, then, the coconut planter should look upon grass round his trees as his greatest enemy; it steals moisture, steals manure and poisons the land. The common objection to elean cultivation is that the grass is recpiîred for cattle feeding. A little reflection will shew how short- sighted this policy is. The coconut crop is much more valuable than the grass crop, and therefore the attention of the owner should be directed first of all towards obtaining the maximum yield of coconuts. We have seen that this maximum yield cannot bo obtained if grass is allowed to grow on the land, and it is certainly not sound business to sacrifice valuable coconuts for the sake of much less valuable grass. The large number of useless cattie which arc kept on coconut estates is one of Í08 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. the chief obstacles in the way of progress in this important branch of agriculture. It is altogether wrong to look upon coconut land as pasture ground for cattle, more especially for cattle which serve no useful purpose. No more cattle should be kept on an estate than are needed to work it, and this number does not exceed, for earting purposes, two pairs of bulls for every hundred acres of iand in bearing. If modern methods of cultivation by means of ploughs or harrows are employed we may add ono extra pair, giving a total of 6 head of cattle as ample for all requirements. If these are allowed to feed on the grass growing around the trees, they will probably need as much as 20 acres to sup- port them, whereas if they were grazed on good pasture land they would get all the grass they need from 6 aeres, while if their grass feed were supplemented by poonac, even a less acreage of pasture would suffijc for their support. On an estate of 100 acres, therefore, not more than ü acres of goou pasture land arc required, and this ¡and should be set aside and cultivated for this purpose. There is no need to cut down the coconut trees; all that is required is to cultivate these 6 aeres to give a maximum grass crop, the coconuts being considered a secondary crop and left to take eare of themselves, whila the remaining 94 acres are kept entncly free from grass and cultivated for a maximum crop of coconuts. Before considering tho subject of manuring, mention may be made of one ether method by which loss of soil water can be diminished. The capacity of the ¿oil for holding moisture can be increased by in- creasing the amount of organic matter it contains. By organic matter is meant chiefly the decaying remains of vegetation such as accumulate in the soil of a jungle. Soils which ars rich in this material hold niueii more moisture after ram than do open sandy soils, and by digging quan- tities of vegetable matter into sandy scils they are gradually made more able to hold the water which falls on them as rain instead of allowing it to sink through them beyond the reach of roots. Cattle manure acts in much the same way, and does much to improve the water-holding capa- city of sandy soils. THE USE OF MANURE. The purpose of manuring is to supply the growing crop with the food it requires. This food is present in all soils, but, as everyone knows, soils vary in quality. Some are rich and bear heavy crops, others arc poor and produce meagre stunted vegetation; and when this poor- ness is due to iack of plant-food they can be improved by applications of manure. The plant-foods which it is necessary to apply as manure are only three in number, namely Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash, but these three substances can be used in a great many different forms. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 109 That is to say, there are a great many different manures which can \e used and they contai i different quantities of those foods. J u s t as soils are of different qualities so are manures, some are rich and some are poor, and it is important to realise that the value of n manure depends very largely on the amount of plant-food it contains. For instance, 100 lbs. of castor cake contain 5 lbs. of nitrogen, while 100 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia contain 20 lbs. and for this reason sulphate of ammonia is much more valuable as a manure than castor cake. When buying a mixed manure, a common mistake is to consider only the price per ton and to imagine that 10 lbs. of a mixture which cost Rs. 80 per ton, will be of the same value as a fertiliser as 10 lbs. of another mixture which costs Rs. 120 per ton. The real state of matters is that 15 lbs. would be required of tho cheap mixture to supply the same amount of plant food as 10 lbs. of the more expensive one, and that more money would have to be spent on rail freight, and other transport charges, hee^ause a larger quantity of manure would have to be handled. Generally speaking, a rieh manure at a high price per ton is the cheapest in the end, because less of it has to be used. It is the cost per tree whieh should be looked at. not the cost per ton. It is not proposed to discuss the theory of the action of manure in this pamphlet, and it will be sufficient for our purpose to state in general terms that tho effect of nitrogen is to encourage the growth of the green parts of a plant, that is, the leaves and young shoots ; phos- phoric acid is chiefly concerned with the production of fruit and seeds; while potash ,s necessary for the growth of the woody portions, such as stem and hark. All three are required if a healthy tree is to be pro- duced, but diflerent trees require them in different proportions. Some- times the soil is rich enough to supply the tree with all that it requires, but often one or other has to he added in the form of manure to bring the food in the. soil to the proportions needed by the tree. The propoitions which are best for the coconut tree vary, therefore to some extent according to the richness of the soil, but in most cases the differences in soib are so slight that one general coconut mixture is suitable for all. Tho following are good proportions for a general coconut mixture : — Every 100 lbs. of mixture should eontain 4î lbs. nitrogen. 7 lbs. phosphoric acid. 5J lbs. potash. The choice of ingredients to bo used in making up the mixture depends on many things, and a full discussion of them would be a lengthy matter. It will be enough hero to note that the mixture shoul 1 not be made entirely of rich artificial manures, but should contain some 110 slow-acting bulky material such as poonac or fish. Bone meal or steamed bono meal is a good ingredient on most soils and supplies a large amount of phosphoric acid, while nitrate of potash or soda acts quickly and is a good stimulant for sickly trees. A judicious mixture of materials such as these arranged so that 100 lbs. of the mixture contain the quantities stated above can be safely used as a good all-round coconut manure. The quantity to be applied per tree is a question on which a good deal of misunderstanding exists. There seems to be a very general idea that 15 lbs. per tree is the proper dose for full grown trees, but after what has been said on the variation in the richness of different manures it will be seen that it is quito incorrect to say that 1-5 lbs. should he applied in every case. It depends on the richness of the mixture. 15 lbs. of castor cake would do very little good, while 15 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia might do a gieat deal of harm. If the proportions stated on the previous page are used, then 10 lbs. ppr tree should be applied to trees in bearing, but this is only correct for those proportions. For young trees the dose should be less, starting with about hall a pound the first year after planting, and increasing gradually year by year up tn 10 lbs. THE USE OF CATTLE MANURE. As was mentioned before, cattle manure is or great value in sandy soils for increasing their power of holding moisture after rain. It is in this improvement in the texture of the soil that the value of cattle manure chiefly lies. It also supplies nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but the quantities it contains are small compared with other manures, and it consists mainly of a large bulk of decaying organic matter which adds to a sandy soil just what it lacks in this respect. Cattle manure is of universal application, and there are few soils, in Ceylon at icast, winch would not be benefitted by it. Its action as a fertiliser terds towards promoting leaf growth, for it contains more nitrogen than it does phosphoric acid or potash, and for this reason 't should not he used in large quantities if the soil is rich. Too much nitrogen delays the ripening of the fruit. In the ea_e of most sandy coconut soils, however, it would be almost impossible to apply too much cattle manure, and the difficulty generally is that sufficient cannot be got. Where more is needed than can be obtained it is much better to apply what you ïïave in heavy doses to a small numbei of trees than to spread it over the whole estate. The driest and sandiest paits of tho soil need it most, and the trees with yellowish drooping leaves will respond to it best. It should be applied at the rate of not less than 10 baskets per tree, and even 20 baskets would not bo too much in many eases. By choosing the worst parts of the estate, ana the most needy trees and continuing with them for COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL- COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. Ill a year or two they will be gradually improved, and the applications of cattle manure can afterwards be extended to other portions until the whole estate is brought into good condition. The improvement will be much more marked and more rapid in this way than if small doses of the cattle manure were given to all the trees. THE STORING OF CATTLE MANURE. After the proofs which have been given above of the in- jury done to trees by growing grass it should not be necessary to add much on the subject of tethering cattle to coconut trees. This is only done on slovenly, ill-kept estates, and when the grass is removed the practice cannot be continued. It is at best a wasteful way of applying manure. In a tropical climate a very large proportion of the manure is lost if it is "left to lie on the surface, and what little does find its way into the soil comes in contact with only a very few roots. If it is to be economically used it should be collected and stored until sufficient is obtained to enable it to be applied in heavy doses as described above. It should be kept under cover on a cement or hard mud floor, well pressed down whenever a fresh lot is added to the heap, and covered from time to time by a layer of dry earth. This is a cheap and effective way of preventing loss, and the manure can readily be dug out as re- quired. THE USE OF WOOD ASHES. Wood ashes make a very useful addition to cattle manure, but liko the latter, can seldom be obtained in large enough quanties for applica- tion to the wnole estate. Their value lies chiefly in the potash they con- tain, but they also contain a little phosphoiio acid and so are well suited to supplement cattle manure. When wood ashes can be had tbey should be mixed with cattle manure at the rate of about 2 parts of ashes to 1 paie of manure at the time of application, or they may be added to the heap in tho manure shed from time to time before the layer of dry earth is placed upon it, and the mixture dug out as required. THE USE OF LIME. Limo is what is called an indirect fertiliser. It is not itself a plant food, but it brings about chemical changes in tho soil by whieh plant- food is produced. Potash in particular is formed in this way and the effect of liming is ofte-i the same as if potash salts had boon applied. Lime ha¿> also a good effect on the texture of sandy soils. It cements the small part'cles together and makes the soil less open and porous and therefore no1" so apt to lose all its moisture after rain. Its action is slow and the liable to suffer from drought than a tree which has a vigorous root system extending to a great distance. It is. indeed, a slovenly method which is only upheld by tho^e who are too indolent te do more than the minimum of work on their estate. Manure should be applied towards the end of the rainy season, i/efore the rains have entirely ceased, and if broad-casted, this should be doue when there is no wind. The early morning is gene- rally a suitable time. Trees should be manured every year, and the same remarks as ha¡re been applied to the subject of cattle manure apply also to general manuring. It is much better to manure a few trees w i than the whole estate badly. If money is scarce and the wholo estate cannot be manured with its proper dose do not spread the manure over all the trees in small quantities. Apply the proper dose to part of the estate even if it be only to one acre to begin with. Persevere with this one acre until the profit from the extra crop enables more manure to be bought ant* a larger area to be treated. In this way you enhance the value of your property year by year, wheieas by haphazard and inadequate doses applied to all the trees and at irregular intervals, the same money might be spent and only a small increase in crop obtained. SOIL ANALYSIS AS A GUIDE TO MANURING. A good deal of useful information can often be obtained by soil analysis. Son.c soils are less suited to bone meal than to basic slag, for instance; others respond better to sulphate of ammonia than to nitrate of soda or potash ; while others, again, having a big reserve store of potash, ma/ give their best returns after applications of lime or of kainit. Point,, such as these are important and can only be settled by chemical examination, and it is advisable, before starting manuring, to submit a sainp_e of the soil for analysis. Select portions of the estate at different spots whîre the soil is uni- form in appea'ance and represents a fairly large area. At each point dig a hole 18 inches deep and having one vertical face. From this face, cut a slice of soil from top to bottom and place it in a box or sack. Mix all the slices together thoroughly and send a portion of about 10 lb?, for anlysis. THE USES OF CULTIVATION, It has been pointed out that one of the main objects of cultivation is the preservation of soil moisture and it is also evident that manuring can only be properly done and the manure brought into contact with COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 11.-. nil Iho roots when the whole area is cultivated and not merely a circle round each tree. Another important result of cultivation is that air is by this means allowed to enter tho soil freely. Air is necessary for the growth of the multitudes of bacteria which exist in the soil and which perform many duties in the way of bringing different plant foods into the condition m whieh they can be used. The nitrifying bacteria, for instance, produce nitrates from other nitrogen comionnds. and until these compounds aie converted into nitrates few plants can use them. These nitrifying organisms can only live in presence of air, and a well aerated soil contains many more than a compact and badly cultivated soil. It has been found in laboratory experiments that 25 times as much nitrate is formed in soils which have been stirred as in those left undis- turbed. Besieies this, air is directly necessary to growing roots. A good example of the need of roots for air is seen on turning out the soil from a flower-pot in which ferns or other plants have been growing for some time; a felted mass of roots is found lining the inside surface of the pot, having grown there in profusion as the result of the air which enters through the pores of the earthenware. Plants cannot he grown in pure clay, tbe soil particles are so fine and become so closely compacted that no air can enter, tho roots cannot develop and the plants soon wither and die. It is evident, however, that the amount of cultivation which a soil needs depends on its texture. Thus the pure clay just mentioned could be made to support plant life if it were possible to keep it constantly stirred, while lighter soils would succeed with much less stirring; and so, iu general, heavy clay soils need more cultivation than light sandy soils. A good deal of attention is being paid at th. present time in Ceylon to what is called dry-farming. By this is meant the cultivation, without irrigation, of lands where the rainfall is insufficient to support heavy crops w:thout special methods. The principles of dry-farming are neither more o less than the principles which should govern all farm- ing, namely the proper conservation of soil moisture by cultivation so that the max;n nm amount is available for the crop at the time when it is most neeeied. A soil to he in tbe best condition should resemble a moist sponge. It should be able to draw up moisture from great depths by capillary attraction to the region where the growing roots are, and sliould be covered by a layer of loose surface soil which prevents dtat moisture from being lost by evaporation. In tho case of heavy, or even moderately heavy soils the matter is comparatively simple, and the danger of over-cultivation is not great; but in very loose, sandy soils, such aa are often planned with coconuts 116 near the seashore, the case is different. Such soils suffer more from rain water draining out of them beyond the reach of the roots than by surface evaporation. They are often so coarse-grained as to have little power of holding moisture or of drawing it up from below by capillary action, aud injudicious cultivation in th .se cases may oo harm. It must not be thought that cultivation during dry weather is Jor any other pur- pose than preventing surface evaporation; it is not at this time for aerating the soil nor tor promoting the decomposition of the soil minerals, it is purely and simply to preserve that loose layer of surface soil which is essential to the prevention of loss of moisture. That being so, it need only be done when the surface shews signs of becoming hard, and it should only bo done to the least depth which is fount to produce good results and always to the same depth, not deeper one time than another. If tlie soil needs aerating, or if the decomposition of its minerals or organic mat Lei- needs hastening, thii: should he done by deep culti- vation at the beginning of the rainy season, never dm ing dry weather. In heavy clay soils this deep cultivation is necessary, but sandy soils are usually very well aerated and seldom need deep cultivation, and it is very important that the dry weather cultivation ot these should be shallow, not more than 3 inches deep. It should he done immediately the dry weathei sets in, and should only be repeated when the surface shews signs ot becoming hard. This is also true of clay soils, and ail other soils. Iho surface must be kept loose all through the dry season, but in sandy soils it will remain so much longer without attention than it will in more compact soils. Although the soil in sacdy estates should not be disturbed during the dry season more often than is necessary to keep the surface loose, this must not he taken to mean that grass or weeds should be allowed to grow. It is during the dry weather that these do the j,'eatest harm, and the estate must be kept free from them at all times. ME.cnANTCAL CUL TIV A TORS. One strik-.ng difference between tropical agriculture and that of temperate climates is that in the former the land is peimanently covered by the crop, whereas in the latter the crops are for the most part annual crops which are cleared from the land each year. The permanent nature of tropical crops makes it less easy to make use of machines for carrying out the operations of cultivation than is the case in countries where the fields are harvested and freshly planted every year. Land under coco- nuts, however, gives less trouble in the use of such machines than any other permanent crop in tho tropics. It is neaily always level land, or only gently undulating; it is very seldom rocky; the trees are sufficiently wide apart to make it easy to drive a cultivator between them; there •are no low-hanging branches to get in the way;, and 'finally, should any COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 117 part' of the cultivator come into accidental contact with a tree in pass- ing, practically no damage is done, certainly much less than would follow a similar bruis-, to a rubber tree, for instance. There is no doubt that it is only a matter of time until mechanical cultivators are used as freely on coconut estates in the tropics as they are af present on frmt orchards in California and elsewhere, and tliere is no object in delaying their introduction. By their use the labour on the estate is reduced to a minimum, while the efficiency of the cultivation is very greatly in- creased. .Many forms of cultivator are to be had, and many of them aro very suitable tor use under coconuts. For loose sandy soils, the lightest disc harrow should be used, while for clayey soils a heavier grub harrow or even a plough would be more useful. One requirement which they must fulfil is that they must he easily adjustable to work at different depths. With cue of these machines in use, the general system of word- ing the estate should he as follows: — When the ground softens with the first rains the cultivator should be set to work at a depth of about 6 inches and d'iven between tho rows of trees, up one row and down the next. Afterwards it must be run in the same way across the lows, so that no part of the ground JS left untouched, and at this operation it should be driven as close to the trees as possible. This opens up the grounds and allows rain water to soak in easily. Towards the end of the rains, when only light showers may be expected, the inanure should bo put out. From the amount to he applied per tree and the number of trees per acre the dose per aero is calculated and that quantity spread broadcast on the surface up and down and across the rows, but it should not be scattered nearer than 2 feet from the stems of full-grown trees. After the application the cultivator s again run over the ground, working to the same depth as before. Of course if the land is such that it becomes swampy during the rains and remains so for some time afterwards, the application of manure must be delayed until it has dried sufficiently. Manure sliould not be put out on wet swampy land. If lime is to be applied it sliould bo done ill exactly the same Way a week before the apphcation of manure. The ground should now be left until the dry weather sets in, but should be regularly weeded by hand as often as is necessary. During the dry weather, .the amount of cultivations to be given depends on the texture of the soil. Very loose soils like the sandy lauds nf many coco- nut estates m&j be injured by being disturbed during dry weather, tor there is so little, capillary action in coarse-grained sands that water does 118 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. not readily rise in them from below. In such cases disturbance of the surface soil is not required to break the capillari.t connection with the subsoil, because that connection is already largely broken by the coarseness i );he particles, and there is a danger that any stirring of the surface dries it out more completely and admits the sun's rays and the drying action ot wind to the lower layers also where the moisture is most needed. But, just as soon as the surface shews signs of becoming hard and compact then cultivation is needed and the cultivator should be run over the ground whenever these signs appear. It should be se't to work to a depth of r:ot more than 3 inches and need not be driven across the rows each time, but up and down the first time and across the second, up and down the third, and so on. In the case of clay soils this may have to be done four or five times during the diy season, while in sandy soils once or twice may be sufficient. There should be no difficulty in deciding on the amount of dry weather cultivation which is necessary when it is remembered that we want the water to rise from the depths of the soil to the level of the roots of our coconut tiees and for that purpose the soil at these levels should be fairly compact and fine- grained, but we do not want it to rise above the level of the roots, and for that purpose the surface must be kept loose so tha:. the capillary con- nection is broken. If no mechanical cultivators are used, the same system of cultiva- tion must be carried out by hand. The ground must be well nianimotied at the beginning of the rains, the manure put out towards the end by- broadcasting, and the whole area gone over again with niammoties or digging forks to cover the manure. As often as is necessary to keep tho surface loose during the dry weather a very light forking must bo carried out, anu all weeds and grass must be systematically uprooted as soon as they appear. CONCLUSION. There is no doubt that surprising results will be got before long from well cultivated and manured estates. When we »ee occasional trees in native gardens, wdiich are unwittingly manured by the owner's house- hold refuse aim the dung of his domestic animals, bearing crops of 300 or 400 nuts we begin to realise that the possibilities before this branch of agriculture are enormous. There is no reason whj crops of 200 or more nuts pel tree should not be obtained over large areas. It has often been demonstrated that the tree is capable of bearing such crops and it only needs care and the application of up-to-date and common- sense methods of cultivation and manuring to ensure success. Remember that grass-grown estates will never give the highest yields, and do not sacrifice your crop tor the sake of third-rate pasture for useless cattle. Clcan-wced the whole estate and manure every year. fflatá. COCONUT PICKING. To fact page IU J / COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 119 CHAPTERS BY " TRENT VALE.' SOME OF THE SPECIAL FEATURES AND RECJUIREMENTS OF THE COCONUT P ALM. THE ROOTS. The roots of plants perform two functions. Firstly, they fix; thâ plant in the sou and provide a support upon which the stem, branches and foliage are raised, and secondly, they absorb from the soil nitrogen and the mineral plant-foods which form an essential part of the diet of plants. So far as these functions themselves are concerned the roots of the coconut paita do not differ from those of any other ordinarily cul- tivated plant, but as regards the manner in which these functions are carried out the coconut palm is in a class entirely by itself. Consider first the purely mechanical function peíformed by roots. the fixing of the plant to the soil. The roots of ordinarily cultivate! plants, such as rice, tea, grass, rubber and so forth, develop either upon the " tap " or the " fibrous " system; that is to say the roots grow down into the soil either in the form of one or more large main stems which give off secondary and tertiary branches at varying intervals, or else the roots grow out from the base of the plant in a more or less dense mass ot fine fibres. The coconut palm develops its roots upoi neither of these systems. From the base of the palm radiate, in the case of a full-gi own healthy specimen, several thousands of long strand- like roots whicli are remarkably uniform in diameter, being a little thicker than a pencil and not quite so thick as one's little finger. These roots develop outwards from the palm in almost straight lines, shewing very little tendency to twist or turn in any other direction. They never go very deep into the soil; in ordinary land the huge majority of them will bo fouud within the first two feet of soil. The length to which they ultimately develop is largely governed by the natura of the soil and the amouut of cultivation which is carried out. In heavy " Cabooky " land these roots may not be more than twelve to fifteen feci in length, whilo in lighter soil they may easily reach outwards for a distance of twenty-five feet. These long main roots may bear as many as twenty branches or they may have none at all. As a general rule the branch-roots are not more than three or four feet in length and they possess a marked ten- dency to grow out at right angles from the parent roots. The branch- roots may themselves bear smaller branches not more than a few inches 120 ' COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. in length and these again sometimes give off still tinier shoots, the num- ber and extent of these sub-divisions being greater in firm soil than in light sands. The construction of all these roots is the same. On the outside is a hard and rigid shell, called the hypodermis, whilst down the centre of every root runs an exceedingly strong pith in the form of a cable. The rigid hypodermis is admirably suited to withstand a bending strain.: whilst the cable-like pith will resist an immense tension. These two devices, in conjunction with the fact that all sub-divisions of the roots grow- out at wide angles to the branch which bears them, constitute a most perfect form of anchorage which enables the palm to stand up against tho fiercest storms to winch it may be subjected. So much for the mechanical functions performed by the roots : now for that which is concerned with the absorption of nitrogen and mineral plant foods. The outstanding difference between the roots of the coconut palm •and those of other crops is that the former bear no root-hairs. At the extremity of each sub-division of the roots of the coconut palm is a dark coloured conical object known as a " root cap " which is composed of tough woody fibres and is for the purpose of protecting the tender growth-point of the root as it forces its way through the soil. Imme- diately behind the root cap, for a distance of not more than two inches in the case of the main roots and of only a fraction of an inch in the case of the root-branches, is an area of soft tissue through which the plant-food is absorbed. Behind this area of soft tissue- and right back to the base of the palm the long strands of roots are sheathed in their casing of hypodermis which is Cjuiie impervious to weather. At fre- quent intervals along the root-strands are found curious small white projections which are special breathing organs for the purpose of ad- mitting air into the roots, but no plant-food whatever can gain entrance to the palm except through the soft-walled tissue at the extremity of each main strand and of each sub-division, These facts relating to the structure and growth of the roots of the coconut palm are of the utmost importance to us when we come to con- sider the questions of cultivation and manuring. In Ceylon the most usual number of palms grown per acre is ¡li the licighbourhoou of seventy, that is to say the palms are about twenty- four feet apart. Now from the fact that the roots of each palm extend outwards for a distance of fifteen to twenty-five feet it follows that the entire area of the soil of an estate of full-grown palms is enmeshed in a network of roots. And from the fact tliat the primary roots give off secondary and tertiary branches at some distance from the parent palm COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 121 it follows thai, the soil midway between the palms will contain more roots, and more feeding extremities, than are to be found in any other position. Obviously, therefore, it is this central area of soil midway between two rows of palms wiiich should receive most attention in the shape of cultivation and manuring. On those estates w-hieh are kept clean- weeded the whole area of the land is cultivated at frequent intervals with the result thai air is admitted to all portions of the roots and the solu- bility of the mineral plant-food is thereby increased uniformly throughout tho estate. But where it is impracticable, owing to the lie of the land or the nature of the soil,' to keep an estate clean-weeded, it is, far more often than not, just that area around the base of each palm, which necessarily contains the fewest root-extremities, which is cultivated and manured. In other words air and plant-food are admitted to those portions of the roots which can make least use of them. Now no planter should ever make a drastio change in his methods of planting until he has conclusively proved to himself that tho change will bo for the better. To those planters, therefore, who are in the habit of cultivating a small circle of laud around each palm, the following suggestion is offered :— Select a small area, say four rows of palms, on oue of your estates. Plough up the land for a width of about eight or ten feet down the middle of each row and carry out all cultivations and apply all the manure to these central strips of land. Compare the crops obtained from the palms around which the soil has been cultivated in circles, and prove to your own satisfaction whether the new system is not better than the old. How THE PALM FEEDS. The coconut palm, like other plants, possesses two sets of organs through which it takes in food, namely, the roots and the leaves. Considering first the method by which the roots absorb food, onc of the most important points we have to remember is that only thoso food- stuffs which are dissolved in water can enter the roots of the palm. No solid particles of soil or of manure, no matter how minute thoy may be, can possibly effect an entrance into the roots. Every atom of food taken up from ihe soil has first to be dissolved in water before it can be consumed. Moreover it must be remembered that water enters the palms through the mots only. Not a single drop of water can possibly find 122 its way into the palm through the leaves, the crown, the cabbage, or iudeed any portion of the palm except the roots. The absorption of water through the roots of the palm is carried m most satisfactorily when the following conditions are fulfilled :—(1) a certain degree of warmth of the surrounding soil; (2) an adequate supply of fresh air ; ana (3) a suitable supply of water. In the coconut-growing districts of Ceylon it is seldom indeed that the temperature of the soil ever falls below that point at which the absorption of water is checked, though this may occur occasionally in the caso of baaly-drained or water-logged areas. Neither is the tem- perature of the soil ever likely to rise too high. So far as concerns tho soil temperature, therefore, Ceylon coconut plantera are particularly fortunately siiuated; the natural conditions being favourable and satis- factory, the p.i.nter is not called upon to endeavour to modify them in any way. But the same can by no means be said of the other two essential conditions, an adequate supply of air and of water. In the absence of a proper supply of air the roots of the palms are unable to breathe, with the result that poisonous compounds are formed within them and the palms become unhealthy. While all ordinary land plants require to breathe through their roots the coconut palm is one of the very few whieh actually develops special organs designed solely for the purpose of enabling its roots to breathe. Theso organs take the form of small, hard white projections which appear at irregular intervals along the root strands. The very Iact that the palm puts forth these special breathing organs is sufficient indication of the necessity for an adequate supply of air to the roots. Wliile every planter in the world is perfectly well aware that a supply of water is essential to all forms of animal and vegetable life, the huge quantity of water required for the perfect development and growth of the coconut palm may possibly come as something of a Mirprise to those who have not made a special study of the subject. A very fair idea of whaJ_ the requirements of the palm really amount to can be formet! by a consideration of the fact that more than half the total weight or a fuUy grown palm, including the roots, stem, branches and leaves, is made up of nothing more nor less than water. In other words, suppose the total weight of the palm amounts to 2,000 lbs., then approximately 1,200 lbs. are composed purely and simply of water. Moreover, for every single pound of thy matter of which the palm is composed some 400 to 500 pounds of water require to be absorbed into the roots, passed up the stem and finally evaporated off into the atmos- COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 123 phere from the surface of the leaves ! These elementary facts are in themselves sufficiently impressive to bring it home to all of us that hy far the most important duty the coconut planter has to perform is that of ensuring an adequate and constant supply of water to the palms. Tho water whicli enters the roots of the palm is not pure; it con- tains dissolved within it small quantities of nitrogen and mineral plant- food, such as phosphoric acid, iron, magnesium, etc., extracted from the soil. But the water which is evaporated off from tlie leaves of tbe palm is perfectly pure. Nothing but absolutely pure water is allowed to escape from the surface of the leaves. All the various salts which entered the roots dissolved in the water are thus retained in the palm, and that is how the palm feeds. It has frequently been shown by chemical analysis that the top fe.v loot of all ordinary soils contain many thousands of pounds of all the different food-stuffs necessary to plants, more than sufficient for the requirements of a very large number of crops, and yet it is a matter of common experience that additional food-stuffs in the form of manure have to be applied to the soil before satisfactory crop growth can be assured. The explanation of this is that the huge bulk of the plant-food contained in the soil is in an insoluble condition. It cannot be dis- solved in water and therefore the plant is incapable of absorbing it. Now there are a variety of ways by which we can help to render soluble the plant-food contained in (he soil, the most important of which is by means of cultivation. By cultivation we admit air into Ihe soil and we break down the lumps of eart.i and so expose a larger surface to the action of the air. What that acton is may not he g°uerally appreciated, but it can be very simply illustrated by considering the action of air upon a piece nf iron, such as a knife blade or a plough-share. Even a few hours' exposure to the damp air is sufficient to cover such pieces of iron with a coating ol rust, which means that the oxygen of the air has combined with tho iron to form an entirely different substance, rust, or iron oxide as it is called by the chemist. Every particle of soil exposed to tbe mi is subjected to this same action of " r u s t i n g " or "oxidation," and by this means large quanti- ties of insoluble plant-food are oxidised into different substances which can be dissolved in water and wdiich are therefore of use to the palm. Various natural agencies are also at work assisting to render soluble the plant-food in the soil, oue of the most important cf which is a gas 124 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL called carbon-dioxide. This gas is brought dbwn from the atmosphere dissolved in rainwater; it is also exuded from tho root of plants as a result of their breathing process and it is given off from decaying vege- table matter in the soil. When dissolved in water it has the effect of making it a much more powerful solvent than pure water, and in this way larger qu.ntities of plant-food are taken into solution. THE FUNCTION OF THE LEAVES. Three separate and distinct functions are carried out by the leaves of the coconut palm, viz., Transpiration, Respiration and Carbon Absorption. Transpiration is concerned with getting rid of the huge quantities of water absorbed by the roots. This is effected by evaporating the water from the surface of the leaves into the atmosphere in the form of vapour or steam. The water absorbed by the roots contains dissolved in it various substances which are essential for the nutrition of the palm ; and between the root-ends, where the water enters, and the leaves, where the bulk of it escapes into the air, there is a continuous upward move- ment of a stream of water through the roots, stem and branches of the palm, and hy this means the substances dissolved in the water are carried up to the leaves where they arc left and utilized, only pure water being allowed to escape in the process of transpiration. The practical importance of this process lies in the fact that the speed of transpiration governs tho «-mount of plant-food absorbed by the roots. If transpiration is checked then the upward flow of water stops and the loots cease to absorb plant-food, whereas if transpiration is encouraged and hastened then the upwards flow of water moves more quickly and tlie roots absorb water and plant-food more vigorously. " The chief factors which affect transpiration are the following: — 1. The intensity of the light to which the palm is exposed. 2. The dampness of the surrounding atmosphere. 3. The amount of water in the soil and the quantity and nature or the substances dissolved in it. • The brighter tho light to which the palm is exposed the greater will be the transpiration. It has been estimated that transpiration is at least a hundred times as great in bright sunshine as it is in the dark. Even a light haze obscuring the sun will reduc« transpiration by as much as twer.ty-fivc per cent., while a cloud heavy enough to conceal the sun will cut it down to about a quarter of what it is in direct sunlight. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 125 All shade has, of course, the same effect. It makes no difference whether it comes from a cloud or a mountain or some shade tree or from another palm which is planted too close. Every leaf or part of a leaf which, is in the shade has its transpiration cut down to about a quarter of what it might lie, and therefore it gets only a quarter of the food it might get from the soil. The palm itself docs its best to obtain for each of its leaves tbo maximum amount of direct sunlight. Although to a casual observer the leaves may appear to be without any regular arrangement upnn the palm, careful inspection shews that they are distributed on the stem in a very defii.ite order. They radiate outwards from the stem like the spokes of a wheel at perfectly regular intervals, the obvious design being that each leaf should shade those beiow it to the least possiblo extent. This is the experience of the low yield of nuts obtained from those estates on which the palms are planted too closely. The soil may be fertile, the cultivation good and the water supply abundant, and in spite of all these favourable conditions the yield in nuts will be small and will remain small so long as tho palms continue to shade each other. 2. When the atmosphere is saturated with moisture as on a close damp day, transpiration is almost entirely stopped. The air being already thoroughly soaked it refuses to take up additional moisture from the vegeiation. On the other hand a dry atmosphere leads to a very considerable transpiration, which frequently becomes excessive, particularly in tho case of young and delicate plants which have not hnd time to develop largo root systems. Such plants as these require to be protected by shade so as to check transpiration, otherwise they very soon wilt and die. 3. A decrease in the amount of water in the soil reduees transpira- tion. Up to a certain point transpiration increases with an increase i*i tho amount of water, but as soon as the soil becomes in any way water- logged the process is very severely ehecked. Transpiration is also chocked when tho soil-water contains exees- sively large amounts of substances dissolved in it. Tt has also been found that plants which have taken up large quantities of common salt transpire less than those- whicli have no access to this substance; and that while potash, soda and ammonia increase transpiration, acids tends to decrease it. Respiration or breathing is carried on by all ordinary plants and. is as necessary for their existence as it is for the existence of animals. 126 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. In ordinary practice those parts of a plant which are above ground obtain sufficient oxygen for all their requirements, bnt the roots of plants are often seriously injured through want of a suitable supply of fresh air in the soil. The unhealthy appearance of over-watered pot plants and of crops growing in badly-drained ground is primarily due tu insufficient supply of oxygen to their roots. CARBON AKSORPTIOX The leave.; nf plants absorb carbon from the atmosphere in the form nf carbon dioxide gas, ihe carbon being retained in the leaves while tbe oxygen is released and passed back into the air. This process of carbon-fixation can only be carried on in the presence of light. It ceases altogether during the night and in shady places is e-arried on so very slowly that the amount of carbon extracted from th» atmosphere is often insufficient to supply the proper needs of the plant. Similar partial starvation due to want of light occurs among thicklv planted crops and in the inner boughs of trees bearing an excess of leaves, and in all cases of over-crowded plants. With an increased in- tensity of light carbon-fixation increases proportiona*ely up to a maxi- mum which for most plants is not attained until they are exposed to direct sunligh*. T o COMBA T D R O U G H T . In common with every other form of life the cocoanut palm demands a certain amount of water to enable it to live. If the water supply is entirely withheld the palm will die, whilst if the supply is cut down to a point below its normal requirements the palm will very soon begin to show- signs of distress. The roots are the first part of the cocoanut palm to be affected by drought. When water is present in the soil there is at the extremity of each rootlet, a space between the root cap and the hard outer covering of the root, and thiough this portion is absorbed the solutions of nitrogen and mineral plant-foot! taken from the soil. In tbe largest roots this space is about two inches in length, while in the smallest it is only ;_ fraction of an inch. As tho roots extends in length it is followed by an eejual extension of the hard hypodermis, and so the length of the absorbing area in each root is kept constant. But when the supply of water in the soil is reduced the roots cease to grow in length, whilst the hypodermis continues to extend towards the root cap. Tlie absorbing area is thus reduced from day by day until, if the drought continues, it is entirely covered by the hypodermis and in its state no absorption whatever can take pl*ce. W0jk*± ?* ^Afeitó í.*55t_ Vp-WiXifWlSt >.; '.it/, i.1"i'»' Si». a t. Ê n m Ö o -I CM o UH -i) EH -, SEP» H*4_W is9i ^ñ^f/^.^  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 127 In this condition the root is valueless as an absorbing orgau, but this does the palm no actual harm because an active root could absorb no water from a soil dry enough to bring about this condition. Of course, if every single oue of the roots ceased to absorb the palm woul1 naturally die, but this seldom if ever happens. Tlie roots of a full-grown cocoanut palm spread out for a distance of fifteen to twenty-five feet in every direction, while some of them penetrate downwards for as much as four and five feet, and the soil would have to be extraordinarily dry if a few of these roots could not find a little moisture somewher». Young supplies, however, up to three or four years old, which have a much more restricted root system, are frequently killed by the effect of prolonged drought upon absorbing areas of their roots. The leaves of th; palm are affected next by drought. The older leaves drop and hang down close to the stem, many of them wither and fall to tho ground and no new ones are put forth. Finally the nuts themselves are affected. Immature nuts in large numbers fall to the ground, whilst those which are retained on the palms remain small and shew no signs of development. The soils most adversely affected by drought are the thin sands and the reason for this is because of the coarseness of the grains of rocs of which they are composed. When rain fall upon sandy soil it meets with little resistance in its passage down the subsoil with the result that only a very small arhount of water is retained in the upper layers of the soil where the roots of the palms can get at it. Moreover sandy soils have only a very small power of lifting water up from the subsoil by capillarity cr, to use a more homely word, by soaking. Capillarity is a difficult w-ord with a very simple meaning and it is very importan- in connection with the supply of water to soils tbat it must be clearly understood. If we spili a blob of ink on to a sheet of paper we can remove th«. greater portion of it by touching it with the edge of a piece of blotting paper. The ink runs np into the blotting paper under the influence of the force known as capillarity. Similarly, if we lower a lump of sugar on to the suriace of a cup of tea the liquid will run up into the sugar and spread itself over the surface of each tiny grain of which the lump is composed. Now supprse we had three lumps of sugar, one composed of very small fine grams, one composed of very large coarse grains, and tho third made up of medium sized grains. If we lowered these one by one on to the surface of a cup of tea we should find that the liquid toot a very long time to creep up to the top of the first lump, which was 128 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. made up of very small grains, because it would have such a large num- ber of grains to cover. When we came to experiment with the second lump, composed of very coarse grains, we should find that the tea would run quickly- fo.- a short distance up into tho sugar, but then it would stop and it is doubtful if it would ever reach the top because large grains have so little lifting power. Finally, when wo came to try th.. third lump we should find the tea moving ea'sily and freely right up to the top of the sugar. Exactly !he same thing happens iu the case of soils. The coarse grained lump of sugar represents sandy soils in which the particles of earth are large and coarse; the fine grained lump represents clay soils in which the particles are exceedingly minute; and tho third lump represents medium loam soils. This is the explanation of the fact that sands suffer most when subjected to drought, heavy clay suffer nearly as badly, whilst the types of soil which are least affected by lack of rain arc the medium loams. Another foice which acts upon the water in soils and which robs th? palms to the most serious extent is that known as evaporation. This force is so familiar to us all that is scarcely requires explanation. It is under the 'influence of evaporation that the water which is brought up to the surface of the soil by capillarity is converted into vapour and passed into the atmosphere. Now a brief consideration of the above n'otes will be sufficient to incidate to us that there are two main directions in which we can pro- ceed to combat drought. The first is, of course, by making good the natural deficiency ¡n the water supply. If the seasons do not provide our palms with suffi- cient rain wc must ourselves do what we can to augment the supply cf moisture by irrigation or by any other means open to us. Palms judiciously irrigated have nothing whatever to fear from drought, no. matter how severe or how protracted the drought may bo. If our estate is fortunately situated as regards the slope of the land and the suppit\ of water, we have at once a means to hand by which we can defy the most arid of seasons. It is, of course, true that only a small proportion of Ceylon cocoanut estates are so situated as to permit of irrigation, hut where it is possible to adopt this policy it should in- variably be carried out. Where irrigation is impossible w-e can water the palms by means of pumps or buckets and hand labour. This may seem an entirely hope- less and impracticable proposition to apply to an estate of a thousand acres, but as a matter of fact it is not nearly so difficult as it appears at COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 129 first sight. In a very large proportion of the Ceylon coconut districts tliere is a permanent water table from six to eight feet below ,the sur- face of the soil. Immediately over this water table, particularly on the 'Elast coast side, there is a layer of extremely hard coral about two feet thick. Where such conditions as these prevail it is easily possible to break througn the coral and open water-holes at intervals all over our estate. Once these holes are opened half a dozen small hand pumps and a few hundred feet of flexible tubing will work wonders in the way of saving our crops. This suggestion is open to all kinds of objections, but to a very large extent the objections are specious. The expense, the time and the trouble will all be amply repaid by the saving of many thousands of r.uts and by obviating the set-back which the palms in- variably suffer when subjected to a period of excessive drought from the effects of which it sometimes takes them several years to recover. When it is really impracticable to water the entire estate it is frequently a comparatively easy matter to water a portion of it, and it is obviously better to save half the crop than allow the whole to be destroyed. That this system is actually being carried out by a few of the more go-ahead planters is sufficient proof that it offers no insurmountable difficulties. Another very useful system carried out in some districts is as follows:—A porous clay .vessel of about two gallons capacity is buried np to its lip alongside each palm aud filled with water. The water seeps through the sides of the "chatties" and so provides a certain amonnî of moisture to the palms, not nearly sufficient to satisfy their normal requirements, it's true, but still a little is better than none. (It might here be mentioned that the normal requirements of a full grown healthy palm are frnm 8 to 10 gallons of water per day.) The chatties themselves cost little and the labour required to replenish them is not very great. The second direction in whioh we can proceed to combat drought is hy preventing as far as possible the loss of the water which is already in soil. This we can do by suitable methods of cultivation and manuring, and while seeking the best system to adopt it must be borne in mind that our object is to encourage the process of capillarity, by which water is brought up from the subsoil, and at the same time to prevent evapora- tion, by which water is lost into the atmosphere. Most of the salts which arc used as artificial manures and ais soluble in water increase capillarity in soils, hence an applcation of salt, nitrate of soda, or, to a lesser extent, kainit, will lift more mois- ture from the subsoil am' thus maintain the top layer of soil in a moister condition. On the other hand solutions of those organic manures which contain a little oil decrease capillarity and bring about the burning of I 130 soils whicli is sometimes seen when such organic manures arc applied late in tho season and dry hot weather succeeds. The judicious use ot certain artificial manures is therefore indicated as our best means of encouraging the upward movement of water from the subsoil. But this upward movement must not be allowed to proceed too far. If the subsoil water is permitted to mount right up to the surface it will very soon be evaporated and lost into the atmosphere. By far the best means of preventing evaporation is the constant stir- ring of the top two inches of soil by cultivation. This can be done cheaply and expeditiously by using the lightest of harrows since it is entirely unnecessary to cultivate or stir the- lower layers of soil. All that is required is a mulch of loose earth to act as a kind of blanket separating the soil-moisture from the hot dry atmosphere. During periods of drought every head of draught-cattle on the estate should be employed all day and every day in drawing light harrows over tha land and so Keeping fhe top inch or two of soil loose and free. The bene- fits to be derived from this method of conserving the moisture in the soil can scarcely be exaggerated. This system is, of course, applicable only to those estates which are kept clean weeded. Where grass is grown between the palms little can bo done to save the soil moisture. The circles of bare earth around each palm should be constantly stirred by hand labour, and, if the grass be- tween the palms is long, it should be cut and the hay left lying on tho surface to shade the grass and so prevent, as far as possible, loss of moisture through transpiration. This shade should bo supplemented wherever possible by means of leaves and husks spread out over the grass. Generally speaking the soils and climate of Ceylon are peculiarly favourable to the growth of the coconut palm, but from time to time seasonal conditions are such that the palm will not flourish at its best. It is at such times as these that the skilful intervention of the experi- enced planter will make all the difference between a bad harvest and a good one. MANURIN«. Manures are generally made up of a mixture of three ingredients : — Nitrogen, Piio-phoric Acid and Potash, and each of these ingredients has its own special action and effect upon the crop. The principal effect of nitrogen upon the crop is to develop to a_very marked degree the vegetative portions of the plant, I.e. the roots, stems and leaves. It encourages deep rooting and the development of masses of fine feeding roots,, for which reason its effects are lasting and permanent, COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL- 181 since after the nitrogen has been completely absorbed the plant is left with a bigger and more active root system and consequently draws upon a larger area of soil for its food and water. " A deficiency of nitrogen is seen in a general stuntiug ot the whole development of the plant," says Sir A. D. Hall who also observes that; "On most cultivated soils upon which cropping is continued and manure .withheld to a point when there begins to be a serious falling off in the yield through lack of plant food it is the want of available nitrogen rather than of phosphoric acid and potash which determines the yield. In other words the soil is much more rapidly exhausted of its available nitrogen than of its available phosphoric acid and potash." Nitrogen starvation, is manifested by a yellowing of the foliage, absence of growth and a poor, starved appearance generally. To plants in this unhappy condition an application of nitrogen has the immediate effect of changing the colour of the leaves to a rich dark green and en- couraging the growth and development of all portions of the plant. Phosphoric acid, like nitrogen, stimulates the development of roots, particularly in the case of young plants, but its principal effect upon tli9 crop is to increase the flowering and fruiting tendencies and to hasten maturity. The principal effect of potash upon plants is to assist in the process of extracting carbon from tho carbon dioxide of tho atmosphere. It also assists in the formation of fruit, particularly of those which contain sour juices. Potash tends to prolong the life of plants and has a distinct effect in hardening the woody tissues of plants, From a careful comparison of the effects of the three principal manurial substances it is obvious that the most important of the three, from the planter's point of view, is nitrogen. In the first place, ordinary soils are more deficient in nitrogen than in any other kind of plant-food. Secondly, erops give a bigger return in response to an application of nitrogen than to any other form cf manure. Thirdly, nitrogen is the most expensivo substance applied to the soil as manure, for which reason it is obviously necessary to exercise tho greatest care and judgment in the selection of the best form of nitrogen to apply. Nitrogen can be applied in many different forms. Nitrate of Soda, Sulphate of Ammonia Dried Blood, Crushed Fish, Oil Cake, all supply this most important plant-food. Tho question at once arises therefove as to which form will give the best return. 132 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. Now there are three aspects to this question which must be most carefully considered in order to arrive at an absolutely reliable answer : — First, there is the scientific aspect. In other words, what light has been thrown upon this question by scientific research? Secondly, what are the special peculiarities of Ceylon soils; and thirdly, what are the special requirements of the Coconut palm ? As regards scientific research this question has been the subject of most careful and accurate scientific investigation for scores of years past. Dr. J. (J. Lipnian and A. W. Blair have recently completed twenty years' work on this very point and their report read as follows :— "Twenty years continuous investigation shew that Nitrate of Soda is the most effective in crop production, that is, Hie crop is -able to utilise or win back a larger percentage of nitrogen in this form than in any other form. The average amount of nitrogen recovered in the crop, over twenty years, was: — Nitrate of Soda Sulphate of Ammonia Dried Blood Farm Y ard Manure Fish Manure ... _ ... 62-42% ... 47-4S% ... 36-89% ... 32-69% ... 36-36% Such is the result of twenty years' scientific ing, competitive examination carried out by trained observers who were animated solelj by the desire to assist the world's agriculturists by answering this vitally important question. Covering as it does a period of a fifth of a century this one investi- gation alnne might be taken as definite and conclusive It would appear unnecessary to look for further proof in support of a fact already so well and truly established. Yet volumes of further proof are actually in ex- istence. Dr. E. B. Voorbees carried out experiments at the New Jersey Experimental Station over a period of ten consecutive years in order to determine what percentage of the nitrogen in the various manures was actually recoveied in Iho crop. He reports as follows: — MANURE. Nitrate Nitrogen Ammonia ,, Organic ,, NITROGEN RECOVEEED IN CROP. (As ia Nitrate of Soda) ... 62% (As in Ammoniam Sulphate) ... 43% (As in Dried Blood) ... 40% experience. A search- COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. l3á Thus was the twenty-year investigation of Lipiuan and Blair con- firmed in every particular by the ten-year trial of Voorhees. But this is still by no means all. Dr. Paul Wagner, working on this same problem in Darmstadt and other places iu Germany, obtained the following results :— MANURE. Nitrate Nitrogen. Ammonia ,, Organic ,, NITROGEN RKCOVERED IN CROP. (As iu Nitrate of Soda) ... 62% (As in Ammonium Sulphate) ... 44% (As in Dried Blood) ... 40% Here is a different scientist in a different country obtaining exactly the same results as Lipman, Blair and Voorhees. And it would ho very easy to go on piling tip proof after proof in further substantiation of the results already recorded, but let it suffice to quote one more: — Dr. G. Smets of Liege, Belgium, taking Nitrate of Soda as a basis, established, after many years' investigation, the following comparative table shewing the relative amounts of nitrogen taken up by the crop a the different manure 3 : Nitrate of Soda ... 100 Sulphate of Ammonia ... Nitrolim Dried Blood Horn Shavinys OilCake 75 69 65 65 Green Manure Fish Manure Bone Meal ... Farm Y ard Manure Wool Waste Leather Waste .,. 65 ... 60 ... 60 ... 40 ... 25 ... 12 — ... ,.. ... - 65 So much for the scientific aspect of this ejuestion ! In every single investigation ever carried out Nitrate of Soda has invariably occupied the first and foremost position. It should be observed that the above trials were carried out by scientists of such world-wide reuown and unassailable integrity that it would be sheer folly to attempt to question their finding, more parti- cularly as each result is confirmed by the independent researches of the others. Moreover the trials were carried out ou a multitude of different crops, in many different countries and under widely varying conditions. Each fertiliser was treated in exactly the same way, each had exactly the same chance of being absorbed by the roots of the crop or of being washed out of the soil by rain, and in every single instance Nitrate of Soda proved itself co be approximately 25 per cent, superio.' to the next best fertiliser I Í34 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL: Special soils demands special treatment. The chief peculiarities of Ceylon soils demanding special attention are lack of nitrogen and acidity. The sickly pale green and yellow discolouration of the foliage to- gether with the shrivelled appearance of the cabbage over many acres of Ceylon coconuts provide strong indications of nitrogen-starvation whicfi can be only too readily confirmed by the chemical analysis of the soil. That this deficiency can best be remedied by an application of Nitrate of Soda is proved beyond all question by the results of the scientific in- vestigations given above. The usual method of counteracting soil acidity is to apply lime, and it is probable that this substance would prove beneficial to many' Ceylon estates. But on no account should a large dressing of lime be applied without first tiying its effects on a small area of land. A far safer and more prudent method of procedure is to select manures of a non-acid or alkaline nature which will themselves neutralise soil acidity. Nitrate of Soda is admirably suited to fulfill this purpose. Being an alkaline substance it has a marked effect in neutralising soil acidity and in so doing it sweetens the soil and makes it a more wholesome medium for tho healthy development of roots. ##**•• As regards the special requirements of the Coconut palm it should bo observed that it is the natural fruit of the palm whicli is harvested. Therefore, that mixture of manures which produces the largest yield of nuts aud at the same time promotes the healthy development of the palm is obviously the best fitted to meet the special requirements of the crop. • Now Nitrate of Soda has been used in Ceylon for many years past to the extent uf some thousands of tons per annum and a very large num- ber of trials with Nitrate of Soda on Coconut have been carried out. The success of these trials can be seen by reference to the various text books written cn the subject. During tl.e last few years a further series of scientific trials was commenced wiih a view to determining the exact nature and extent of tho influence ot Nitrate of Soda on Coconuts. In 1919 the first of these trials was commenced on an estate in the Kurunegala district, A¡ S. Long Price, Esq., the well-known authority on Coconuts, vcrj kindly undertaking to supervise the 'rial and to have accurate records kept. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 135 A fiofd of evenly grown palms, eight acres in extent, was selected and divided into two portions, A. and B., on each of which there wero 231 palms in full bearing. Tho objec', of the trials was simply to determine tho effect on tho yield of nuts brought about by the addition of a small quantity of Nitrate of Soda to tho ordinary estate mixture. The two biocks were marlured as folio ws : - Crushed Fish Bone Meal Steamed Bone Meal Superphospate Nitrate of Potash Nitrate of Soda T o t a l •• .-. . 4-5 3*0 2-0 0'5 O'ô 1-5 1 2 0 Tho following is a certificated statement of tho yields:— 1920. 1st picking 2nd „ ,, „ 1921. 1st 2nd ,, Total 1,548 nuts. 1,717 nuts. 2,714 „ 4,649 „ 4,871 „ 3,477 „ 2,192 „ 1,057 ., 2,874 „ 24,051 nuts 3rd 4th 5th 6th 2,316 4,184 4,865 2,692 2,161 1,214 2,188 M n •i i. ,, 1 ; Bi_,OCK A. (Lbs . per palm) 4-5 3-0 .„ 2-0 ... 0-3 ... 0-5 **•* _ . . . 10-5 BLOCK Ü. (Lbs. per palm Increase due to Nitrato of Soda:—2,883 nuts, or more than 12 nuts per palm. It should bo noccd that this estate has been for years past in a very high state of cultivation--over this eight-aero field the yield 21,1GS nuts 136 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. averages more than 80 nuts per palm per annum, a fact which makes the magnificent performance of the Nitrate of Soda still more striking. It is a common fallacy amongst many Coconut Planters that an application oí manure to Coconuts will not increase the yield for con- siderably over a year, because it takes from twelve to fourteen months for the nuts to mature. No greater mistake could be made. In the case of every single trial carried out with Nitrate of Soda on Coconuts the yield has been increased in three to six months. A moment's consideration will shew how this is brought. Lakhs of rupees are lost annually in Ceylon tlirough the premature fall of young immature Coconuts. The fall of these nuts is caused by the weakness of the slender stalk which holds them to the spike; they are shaken off by the wind and pushed off by their more robust neigh- bours. Now one of the principal effects of nitrogen on plants is to strengthen and invigorate the vegetative portions, an effect which is easily noted in the increased development of root, stem, foliage and fruit which invariably follows an application of nitrogen. Plants take up nitrogen from the soil in the form of Nitrates; from whicli it follows that the nitrogen in such manures as Sulphate of Am- monia, Crushed Fish, Bone Meal, etc., has first to be converted into Nitrates before being of any use to the crop. In the case of Nitrate of Soda, the nitrogen is already in the form of Nitrates, no conversion is required: it is absorbed by the plant im- mediately after its application. When apphed to Coconuts its immediate effect is to invigorate all parts of the palm, including the vitally important stalks whicli hold the nuts to the spikes, and the nuts are thus retained on the palm instead of falling to the ground. The simplest possible kind of trial will enable any planter to prove for himself the importance of this action of Nitrate of Soda. All he has to do is to select two acres of evenly grown palms, remove any young nuts which have ahead fallen, apply a pound and a half of Nitrato of Soda to each palm on one acre, leaving the other acre undressed, and observe the results. The diminution in the fall of immature nuts on the blocks to which Nitrate of Soda has been applied has been noled and remarked upon by the Superintendents of every single estate where trials have been car- ried out. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 137 For the purpose of confirming the results of the trial detailed above an exactly similar trial was carried out in the Batticaloa district. In this case the block treated with Nitrate of Soda has yielded exactly tea per cent, more than the other. In addition to which the Superintendent reports:—"The block treated with Nitrate of Soda shewed a decided difference in colour and the heads looked greener and healthier than on the other block. Also I have noticed a difference in the falling off of immature nuts; the Nitrate of Soda block has hardly dropped a nut." With a view to demonstrating the effect of Nitrate of Soda in bring- ing on young palms a further series of trials was commenced on an estate in Jaela. In this ease it is not possible to quote figures because none of the palms have yet come into bearing. The following reports from the Colombo Agents and the Estate Proprietor, however, speak for themselves : — From the Colombo Agents:—"The blocks treated with Nitrate_of Soda is doing very well indeed. It is as good as any block with four any other plots even where a greater amount of ordinary mixture was applied." From the Estate Proprietor :—"The block treated with Nitrate of Soda is doing very well indeed. It ¡s as good as any block with four times the normal application of manure. The plot without Nitrate of Soda is not doing well." The following mixture has been designed, in consultation with seve- ral leading Planters and Visiting Agents, to meet the special require- ments of Ceylon soils and the Coconut palm: — NITROGEN. PHOSI'HOUIC POTASH. MANURE. ACID. 300 lbs. Steamed Bone Meal, containing 9 lbs. S ,. 25 , 0 ,, 1) 43 ., 66 lbs. Olbs. 9„ 0„ 100 „ Fish Guano 150 „ Nitrate of Soda 50 ,. MuriateofPotash 600 „ » i. », c „ 0 „ 25 „ 75 „ 25 „ Steamed Bono Meal supplies a large amount of readily available Phosphoric Acid together with a small proportion of Organic Nitrogen which gradually becomes converted into Nitrates in which form it is readily taken up by die plant. o„ 138 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. Fish Guano shares with the true guanos the property of continuing to yield up nitrogen tc the plant throughout tho whole growing season. It also contains a valuable proportion of Phosphoric Acid. Nitrato or Soda supplies the bulk of the nitrogen in the form which both tho world's Scientists and Ceylon Planters have found to be the best. Muriato oí Potash is a. salt which meets the potash demands of the crop. A smaii amount only is included in tho mixturo because it will be supplemented by the action of the soda in the Nitrate of Soda which liberates potash from the soil compounds, thus rendering large dressings of this salt unnecessary. T H E COMPOSITION FERTILISER. Animal Meal Castor Cfke Groundnut Cake Crushed Fish Fish Guano Bone Meal Steamed Bone Meal Blood Meal Nitrate of Soda Sulphate of Ammonit OF FERTILISERS. Nitrate of Potash Nitrolim Superphosphate Basic Slag ... 33 50/55 48/5J ¿0/22 Ephos Phosphate Muriate of Potash ... Sulphate of Potash ... Sylvinito 18 15/13 30 ... Nitrogen. (Per cent.) 7/8 4/5 7 4 7/8 3 3 11 15J 20 10 18 I hos- phoric Acid. (Per cent.) 7/8 4 8/9 22 22 Potash (Per cent.) 5/6 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 139 DR. GEEIIENS'S CHART. SHOWING WHICH FERTILISERS MAY BE MIXED. 1 1. Superphosphate 2. Lime 3. Basic Slag 4. Sulphate of Ammonia 5. Farm-yard Manure and Guano 6. Potash Salts 7. Kainit 8. Nitrate of Soda Many of the manures iu ordinary use, such as Basic Slag, Super- phosphate, Sulphate cf Ammonia, e t c , consist of powerful chemical sub- stances whicli are liable to react with one another with a consequent loss of valuable ingredients, unless certain rules aro carefully observed when making up mixtures. These rules are graphically set forth in Dr. Gccheus's chart, in w;hich each numbered corner represents a particular kind of manure, an index below the chart shewing which manure corresponds to each number. Those matures which ought never to be included in the same mix- ture are connected by heavy black lines, those which may he mixed just before application to the soil aro connected by double lines, and UO COCONUT PLANTER'S^ MANUAL. those whicli cat« be mixed together at any time without fear of loss are joined by a sitgle thin line. A study of the chart will reveal the fact that all the "danger" lilies, that is to say the heavy black ones and the double lines, radiate from two corners, viz., those numbered 2 and 3, and the index shows that these numbers represent Lime and Basic Slag. Considering corner No. 2 first, it will be seen that a heavy black- line connects Lime with Sulphate of Ammonia, No. 4, thus indicating that these two substances should not be mixed together. The reason for this is that lime attacks sulphate of ammonia and liberates ammo- nia iu the form of a ;^as which escapes into the air. The valuable ammo- nia is thus lost and the manure rendered correspondingly useless. The same action takes place when Lime is added to Farm Yard Manure or to Guano. Ammonia gas is set free and escapes into the air. A different reason is responsible for Lime being connected by a heavy black line to Superphosphate, No. 1. Superphosphate is a sub- stance in which insoluble phosphates have been rendered soluble by treat- ment with an acid. If lime is added to superphosphate it causes the phosphates to revert to the insoluble form, with the result that the manure is nob nearly so valuable or so potent as it should be. So much for the black lines radiating from No. 2; now for the double lines. No. 2 is connected by double lines with Potash Salts, No. 6, and with Kainit, No 7, tne reason being that if lime is added to these sub- stances the potash is gradually converted into potassium carbonate which is very hygroscopic. The result is that the mixture becomes a sticky messy jäste most diflicult to handle and impossible to spread evenly in the soil. Now consider the other corner from which "danger" lines radiate, No. 3, Basic Siag. This manure contains a large proportion of free lime and therefore exactly the same precautions have to be taken with basic slag as with lime. The heavy black lines radiate from No. 3, to the same corners as nom No. 2, the double lines also run to the same corners, and tlie reasons necessitating these precautions are exactly the same as those explained above in connection with lime. So you see it's ically quite simple after all! And if, when devis- ing your mixtures, you follow the rules laid down in the chart you may be perfectly confident that you will suffer no loss of valuable ingredients, neither will your mixtures deteriorate by becoming sticky and diflicult to handle. ägva • _,7'i^ I m: '•MpflSi',*____. tes* «i >y •" ';"'. '• •"' • •'•'' •'• •! <",-# ! RS...'./. •-' ; ".-iftí"*"Î*'.".-rï<-i_>-ï SMAP<«''í.?. _ '.I* ®'iW tí. ¿£v • . . \ í ' - , - * V í ; " „ . ' í > #íirj -'"• i*. *-';'•• >j 'Il i-i- r. , S.'- COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 141 TIIE TREATMENT OF COCONUTS. EXTRACT FROM A LECTURE BY MR J. E. P. RAJAPAKSE. (Delivered in 1923.) Of all the cultivated products of this Island the most useful and reli- able one to invest in is Coconuts. It is grown with very great success in the Western and North-Western Provinces and also in a few other provinces with fair success. A great part of the wealth of the permanent population of this Island is invested in it. It produces not only the exportable articles as Copra, Desiccated Coconuts, Oil, Poonac, Fibre, Fresh Nuts, etc , but also a hundred other things useful to man and beast. It cannot be imagined what this Island would bs without this useful tree. In the olden days, as tbe demand for coconut products was not very great, the value of a thousand nuts was from Rs. 15 to 20; today it is from Rs. 60 to SO. Formerly the coconut was planted in lands best suited for its growth, in alluvial soils bordering rivers and oyas and in sandy soils along the sea coast. These estates, though carelessly p'anted, without piying much attention to distance, quality of seed-nuts, depth of holes, etc , wero very successful and bore heay crops. Some of the lands being by rivers were fertilized by silt deposits from floods. Further, tyini? cattle to the trees was practicable then owing to the presence, in the viciniy of estates, of large tracts of land, belonging to Government and others, suitable for grazing cattle. With the extension of cultivation these lands are no longer available for pasture; and cattle grazing has to be restricted to planted areas As sufficient cattle for manuring could not be supported on plantations aloin the u=e of artificial fertilizers is being resorted to now. Fresh lands with ideal coconut soil and a rainfall of 75 inches or over are exhausted now. If cultivation is to bo extendel it must be on cinnamon lands in the Colombo and and Negombo Districts, or in drier districts with a rainfall from 50 to 75 inches. Large areas of cinnamon land are being turned into coconut plantations. Generally these lands are white sandy soils, the whiteness being due to depletion of organic matter by the con- tinual removal of evarything that had been produced by the cinnamon. Both the Manning Coconut Trial Ground at Negombo and my experimental plots at Alexandra Estate, which are conducted under the guidance of tho Department of Agriculture, are on land of this description. Carefal manu- rial experiments conducted at Manning Coconut Trial Ground have demonstrated that these soils are most deficient in potash and next in phosphoric acid, a fair quantity of nitrogen beiag available. The Ales- 142 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. andra Estate experiments demonstrate that coconuts could not be success- fully grown on these lands by cultivation alone, however intensive it may be. The application of a full compost is essential from the commencement, while mulching the manured area with coconut husks or fibre dust greatly im- proves growth. The poverty of these soils is due to the absence of organic matter ; therefore under no circumstances should any production of the soil be burnt and every effort should be made to add as much as foreign organic matter to the;soil as possible. Forest lands in the drier districts are available for planting coconuts, but owing to the absence of roads, scarcity of labour, prevalence of malaria, etc., the cost of opening such lands is prohibitive. During the last ten years very little land has been opened up in Coconut. SEED NUTS. From a scientific point of view the selection of good seeds is very impor- tant, therefore seed nutssbould ha selected with the greatest care. Nuts should be selected from healthy, drought-resisting palms 20 to 40 years old, bearing heavy bunches with shorts stalks. There are ssveral varieties of coconuts. 19 more or less distinct varieties have been identified and experiments are being carried out both by the Department of Agriculture at Peradeniya and by me at Alexandra Estate, with plants from these varieties Owing to cross-fertilization these plants are not true to the parent, but the progeny of certain varieties are distinctly superior to others. NURSERIES, The ground of the nursery should be well prepared by digging deep and removing all roots, stumps, etc. It should be then divided into beds about G feet wide, to enable one to walk through the nursery later for weeding, watering, etc. The nuts should be placed about a foot apart with their top? pointing upwards and then covered round with earth exposing only the top. There is a difference of opinion as to the best position the nuts should be placed. Some think it should be placed horizontally as it is the natural position, but experience has proved the upright position to b.e better and more convenient for planting. The plants which fail to do well in the nursery should be rejected. If chis had been done in the olden days there would not be so many sickly trees on estates. FELLING, BURNING, ETC. Felling should be started just after the rains to enable oarly planting. All the trees should be cut as low as possible and the larger branches lopped off the fallen trees so as to cover the ground more evenly to ensure a good burn. The unburnt sticks should be piled up and burnt in the holes just after cutting, while larger logs may be reserved to obtain a'hes later. The COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 143 lining should be perfectly straight. This could be clone economically by using two Surveyor's chains. Straight lines not only add to the appear- ance of I he estate but greatly facilitate the use of labour-saving Implements and allotment of tasks. A well-lined estato will remain for a century or more as a monument of the good work done by a planter. The distance of planting varies according to the nature of the soil. 27 by 27 or even 28 by 28 is most suitable for rich virgin soil, while for gravelly soils and cinnamon land __5 by 25 is considered sufficient. 24 by 24 has proved too close even for these soils as direct sunlight is absolutely necessary for assimila- tive work in the leaves, and growth and production depends on the amount of assimilative work done by the tree. Therefore trees should be so planted as to prevent the leaves of one overlapping those of another. HOLES. Holes should be 3 by 3 feet by 2J feet deep. A wooden frame 3 feet square, with diagonal bars and a hole at the intersection of the diagonal for the peg to pass through, should be used to mark the position of the hole. The difficulty of locating the right spot to plant after the hole is cut could be met by adopting a simple device. This consists of a bar 5 feet long with a hole in the middle and two holes at either end equidistant from it. This bar should be slipped on the peg, so that it passes through the middle hole, and two smaller pegs driven into the ground passing through the holes at the ends. Thus there would be three pegs in a straight line at fixed distances from one another. Though the main peg is removed by cutting the hole, its position could very easily be losated by replacing the bar in position, so that in planting out the only thing to do is to p'ace the bar in position and fix the plant vertically under the middle hole. Holes should be partly filled with surface soil mixed with ashes, aud planted at depths varying from 18 inches, on high land, which does not require trench- ing, to one foot and even less on low land, where trenches are necessary. PREPARATION OF LAND. In new soils the under drainage being defective and the subsoil impervious to moisture, water collects on the surface and stagnates in the holes either killing the young plants or retarding their growth. Therefore the natural watercourses sliould be deepened and feeder drains parallel to the lines opened to drain out the surplus rain water. If this is not done satisfactorily it is not possible to plant sufficiently deep owing to stagnant water. But deep plantation is absolutely essential as coconnt plantations invariably suffer from droughts and their ill-effects are greatest if the main root system is on the surface. Deep planting trains the roots on to a lower strata, thus enabling the surface to be used as a soil mulch, when necessary. If all the planting has to be done with the rains there is not 144 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. sufficient time to adequately drain the land and a large percentage of the plants would be killed by stagnant water. Therefore only those portions, whioh have been drained, are planted up when the rains come. By experi- ments carried out at the Manning Trial Ground it has been proved that a just germinated coconut plant could live on the food in the nut for about a year without even water. Therefore if sufficiently small plants are used, much loss is not incurred even if the rains are missed and planting is carried well into the subsequent dry season. With this extra time available drain- ing could be attended to leisurely and adequate provision made for the next rains. If the soil is very dry and water available, pouring a pot of water round the plant and covering up the wet soil with dry earth to stop evapo- ration is beneficial. This will help the plant to give out roots faster. If no rain has fallen watering may be repeated about a month later with advantage. YOUNG STAGE On a now clearing the quantity of plant food immediately available is much in excess of the requirements of the young plant. This surplus may be either converted into ready money by growing catch crops, if this proves remunerative, or reserved for future use by growing and returning to the soil any legume which suits the climatic conditions. The young plants will not need much plant food till about the third year, therefore it is not necessary to do much cultivation to liberate plant food till then. The soil immediately round the plants must, however, be kept frequently cultivated. This will keep down weeds, oxidise the soil, and act as a soil mulch at the same time. The vegetable matter growing in the middle of the squares maybe periodically weeded and mulched round the palms with advantage. If the plantation is in a dry district with clearly defined periods of drought, the soil of the whole area should be stirred to arrest evaporation at the expiry of the rains. After the third year in order to enable ploughing and disc harrowing, it is essential to remove all the stumps. To perform this economically the use of a " Jack " is of great service. MANURING Manuring is the most important and expensive item in the culti- vation of coconuts. Without it a remunerative income for an indefi- nite time cannot be obtained. An experiment carried out at Manning Coconut Trial Ground shows the total produce (including fallings) from | an acre to be about 3$ tons annually. If all this is removed, as is done on some estates, it will amount in ten years to 70 tons per acre. No land, however fertile, can stand a drain like this. An experi- ment is being carried out at the Manning Trial Ground to ascertain if a land's fertility would be maintained if oil only is removed and everything Plot. 3 12 Cultivated. No Once in 2 Years Annual Cost of Cultivation. Nil Bs. 4 (J Share) Rs.6/- Us. 12/- Ks. 12/- (average) Rs. 20/- No. of Palms Flowered 1-1-1923. ... 15 ... 19 ... 2i ... 30 ... 32 ... 37 ¡3 ¿1 m *8. S S3 10 u < ('EAR. 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 11 -7 .. Years Monthly .. 9 ., Yearly COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 145 else (including poonac) be returned to the soil maintained and tliere is a gradual decline :— But even here crops are not (i AC RE) WEIGHT OF COPRA. 1,015 lbs. ... 943 Jï ... 919 ï» ... 910 J î 912 ,, ... 809 »i R E S U L T S ... .» ... ... FROM 35 NUTS. 2,165 2,164 2,068 2,052 2,047 2,017 T R E E S It is therefore obvious that if we expect the Ian 1 to continue to give good yield?, something must be added to it in the share of manure. Of all manures cattle manure and wood ashes are the best if they are available in sufficient quantities. But as they are not, they have to be supplemented with artificial manures. There are some who are averse to the application of artificial manures on sentimental grounds. But the manures largely used in manuring coconuts are not artificial. Castor cake, fish refuse, bones, etc., are products of the soil and there could not be any harm in returning them to the soil to fertilize it. Although manuring, beyond all doubt, yields improved results, it has been ascertained by long experience that these results can be further improved upon by judicious cultivation. The old practice was to cultivate once in two years just after the rainy season during which manuring was done. But cultivation is so beneficial that former advocates of the two years' system now favour annual cultivation. The results of the cultivation experinieutf at Alexandra Estate show that given the same quantity of manure, the improvement is directly proportional to the amount of cultivation, the gradient of improvement with each degree of cultivation being very evident : — Twice a Year .. Subsoiled and culti- vated in alternative But cultivation, like all good things, can be overdone as witnessed in the intensive cultivation boom. During the intensive cultivation craze an 14C COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. elaborate series of cultivation experiments were started by me in July, 1917, to determine if (1) intensive cultivation could replace manuring, (2) if manuring and intensive cultivation combined give bettor results than either by itself. It was soon apparent that on cinnamon soil cultivation without manuring was useless, though as an adjunct to manuring cultivation im- proves results. In rich alluvial soils intensive cultivation will yield grind result«, but, the strain on the soil is so great that there is a limit to its period of luceess. Tliere are two contrary policies in tieatiug coconut plantations. One aiming at tho conservation of humus in the soil hy applying organic manures, cultivating the soil about mice ,t year, and growing green crops. The other intensive cultivation, not allowing any végétation to grow, and burning all the fallings to clear a way for the free working of improved mechanical appliances, coupled with tho use of indirect manures as lime and salt. The former is practised by those who intend to keep their lands ami hand them down to posterity, the latter by lessees and others whose object is to get everything out of a land as quickly as possible. A method of cultivation suggested to me by the Department of Agri- culture, which in my opinion gives very favourable results on sandy soils, is subsoiling. Subsoiling consists in turning the soil to a depth of about 12 or 15 inches with the object of occasionally breaking up the strata just under- neath the usually cultivated soil. This may be performed once in two or four years and on sandy soils the cost is not exorbitant. As some of the larger roots are cut, subsoiling should be performed in alternate squares, thus leaving half a tree's roots u ntouched. The unworked squares could be taken up after one or two years, when the trees have had ample time to throw out new roots before the remaining half are cut. Subsoiling greatly increases the tilth of a soil, but as it is practicable only when the soil is wet, it is unsuited for clay lands as these would bo only hardened by handling during wet weather. It is further an ideal method of disposing of decaying vegetable matter, which the Entomologist wants to burn and the planter wants to keep as the Entomologist is satisfied if it is more than 8 inches below the surface and the planter if it is not burnt. TYING CATTLE FOR MANURE. " Tying cattle " for manure is a common practice both in estates and in the villages. Trees to which cattle are tied bear well for about a year only. [f the cattle used for this purpose are grazed on the estate itself only a small part of the estate could be treated in a year. It is true that this part is benefitted, but it is at the expense of the rest of the land. Therefore no value could be attached to this system of manuring, unless the cattle are grazed on pastures outside the estate or stall-fed. But with the present prices of straw and poonac stall feeding for manuring purposes is out of the question. Cattle manure, owing to the presence of a larger quantity of organic matter in it, is more suited for coconut soils than any other manière. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL, 147 The only way to gel. it in sufficient quantity is to have a large extent of grazing land attachée! to the estate. MANURE MIXTURE. There is much difference of opinion as to the proper mixture to be used in manuring coconuts. There are some who consider the application of common saltas essential, while others hold that a compost containing Nitro, gen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash meets all the requirements of coconuts. Here, (oo, there is no unanimity as some advocate an excess of Nitrogen, while others are for Phosphoric Acid and Potash. Fletcher in his " S o i l s " states that " the chemical analysis of a crop is of very little practical value to the man who wishes to know what fertilizer to apply to that crop." Hence an analysis of what is removed by the crop is no guide as to what we sliould return to the soil. Under the circumstances I shall venture to give my own personal opinion whicli is backed by over 30 years' experience in manur- ing and also the results of various experiments. The compost that could bo recommended for the use of any coconut estate is :— Fish Manure Castor BoneMeal Sulphate of Potash Total ... 4 lbs. ... 4 ,, ... 6„ ... 2 ,, ... 16 lhs. N t',,0. K,0 '20 -20 — -lei > '00 — -18 P32 — — POO -54 152 POJ 16 lbs. per palm once in two years. This gives about -50 lbs of Nitro- gen, P50 lbs. of Phosphoric Acid and 1-00 lbs. of Potash per palm. Though in the opinion of many this mixture contains an excess of Phosphoric Acid, experience has clearly demonstrated that this quantity is essential to give the best results. At the Manning Coconut Trial Ground :— lu 1922 the plot without Nitrogen yielded 822 Nuts Do do Phosphoric Acid 620 ,, Do do Potash 450 ,, These results confirm the independent deduction drawn from long ex- perience in manuring. APPLICATION. It is the general practice to buy manures mixed in bulk, but as no solids could be mixed mechanically to yield an uniform composition it is always safor to buy the manures separately and weigh out tho quantity of each constituent required for each tree. This has been practised with suooess 148 COCONUT- PLANTER'S MANUAL. and very little expense. The manure is applied in shallow circular trenches o ft. wide and 3 ft. away from the tree and forked in. The trench is then filled with coconut husks, fallings and available weeds and covered up. CATCH WATER DRAINS. Experiments carried out in the Phillippines have determined that the water lost by Iranspiration through the leaves of a coconut palm amount to about 20,000 litres per annum. This is equivalent to about 12 inches of rainiall. As the rainfall in some dislricts is not much above 50 inches and the greater part of this is lost to the coconut tree by wastages such as surface wash, undergrounel drair age, transp'ration from weeds and evapo- ration from tho soil, it is of paramount importance to conserve as much water as possible for the use of the palm. Nowadays much stress is laid on dry-farming to eliminate losses through transpiration from weeds and evaporation, but it is first necessary to fill the reservoir before protecting it from losb. Catch drains are intended to fill the reservoir by intercepting tho surface wash before it runs off the land, and making the soil absorb it. Surface wash is heaviest on undulating land and hard soils: hence it is on such lands that catch drains are opened. These should be opened at right angles to the slope or flow of water, the earth thrown up being arranged on the upper side to form a continuous ridge. A great deal of designing skill is necessary to make these ridges as level as possible. To prevent water running along the ridge and escaping at the ends, the ridge is bent upwards at its two ends. These drains are generally cut 6 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep, but if stronger ridges are needed their size may be increased. To distribute the water held up by the catch water ridge evenly short arms at right angles to the main ridge are constructed by means of earth from small cioss drains on the upper side just above the ridge. A series of small basins are thus formed and if this is done systematically it is possible to collect all the rain water and make the soil absorb it. COPRA. The preparation of copra of good quality is essential for Ceylon copra to command a high reputation in the world's market. The quality of Ceylon copra to-day is much superior to that of some years ago, and this fact is recognised by the wcrld buyers. This improvement in quality can be attributed to better drying. Before the war a laive quantity was sold under-dried, as "cart copra." When the absence of freight during war-time necessitated storage fora long period, this quality, which spoilt quickly, failed to find buyers and the preparation of it ceased. To prepare copra of the best quality only the ripest nuts (those falling and about to fall) sh'iild be picked and as much sun drying as possible resorted to, by •ivoiding the rainy months as May-June and Octobt r-N'ovenaber- Coin MAT MAKING. X To face page 148.  COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 149 REPORT ON TIIE MANNING COCONUT TRIAL GROUND, NEGOMBO, CEYLON. From May 1st, 1922, to May 1st, 1923. A CENSUS OF THE PALM IN THE EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS, " A " plots denote good soil ; " ß " plots denote poor soil. Plot Trees in Trees in Trees Young Total number of No. bearing. flower. about to trees. flower. 1A 25 8 2 nil 35 1B 11 16 8 — 35 ZA 31 — 3 1 35 2¡?. 12 11 IS — 35 3A 26 3 4 2 35 3B 18 10 7 — 35 4A 24 8 3 — 35 trees. 41! 20 9 5A 29 3 5B 17 7 6A 19 15 6B 23 6 7A 26 6 3 3 35 3 — 35 9 2 35 1 — 35 2 4 35 — 3 35 3 6 35 17 — 35 7B 23 8A 11 8Bn" 9A 23 9B 4 10A 22 10B 4 11 * 34 12t 29 3 7 4 3 7 7 12 — 24 6 34 (1 plant dead) 7 2 35 17 7 ,35 6 — 35 16 3 35 — — 34 (1 plant dead) 4 j. 1 35 * In plot 11 the manured circle is mulched with coconut husks. ï In plot 12 the manured circle is mulched with libre dust. The manuring of the plots was carried out in June, 19 2, the manure bciug applied in a circle at a distance of five feet from the tree. iA 20-57 20-57 7-28 50 7-28 18-45 18-45 _ 18-69 18-69 Tbo table given lelow will show tho quantities of manure applied and also the total expeiidituro. Theso O plots with fu- exception of tho Control (Plot 8) and the monthly cultivated (I'lot 5) ave ploughed deep once a year, MANURIAL MIXTURE. Ground- S. of S. of Con- Potas- _, .. Basic Value Cost of Total Plot nut tîone Po- .Degel Am- fiupe- sium Sodium slag Nit- Kanit Lime of labour Expenditure cal« i> in meal tash Hones monia phosphate Nitrate Nitrate rolim Compost etc. on the plots Oo lb. lb. lb. i80 69 30 18o 69 30 —30 — — £0 214 _30 214 30 207 50 Monthly cultivation do do 30 __30— _ __ lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. %%%%% .— — in 2A 2B 3A 3B SA 207 50_— aB 6A 51! 6A 6B 7A 7B 8A 8li 9A 9B — — — —_. 75 84 — 75 84 — — _ 15-62 15-62 18-06 18-06 15-22 15-22 18-62 18-62 20-57 20-57 23 65 16-75 23-57 22-97 55 26 61 a> 25-56 2-41 207 23-92 22-42 27-32 26-87 28-S?. 2912 lb. lb. lb. lb. —. It.c. R c. 8-70 7-20 780 8-15 9-15 6-90 8-85 7-95 23-65 16-75 7-95 7-35 855 7-50 8-70 7-20 8-70 8-25 8-25 8-55 It.O. oc« £9 27 27-77 15-08 15-43 27-CO 25-35 27-54 M 26-64 50 ir 75 36 _ 75 36 Con trol do Control do ,_____ 15 15 __ 30 ___ __. — — 30 _ 4374—— 43 74 — _ 10 A 10 B 11 180 69 30 12 180 69 30 75 84 75 84 111 111 ——— —— _.. — 55 H — — > — 125 — 125 —. t> THE Annual Plot Crop 1 581 2 CROPS Average Number of Nuts per Bearing Tree OF ' " A " PLOTS. 732 3 445 4 297 5 366 6 437 7 663 8 94 9 421 10 517 U 1,225 12 754 23-24 23-6 17 9 12-32 10 Kupee Rs. cts. 50 00 _U50 62 00 93 00 G400 54 00 40 00 a candy 1,012 l,05S 1,013 1,260 1,280 1,09.' 1,142 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 151 THE 1B 119 108 3 " B " PLOTS. 233 00 103 00 151 00 174 00 162 0U 2Ü 3B 415 5B BB 7B 8B 9B 10 B 150 12-5 1 175 97 5 153 7-65 7 103 6 9 ?56 11-13 o 202 8-9 6 2556 89 00 moo 1,052 Compara- tive Urder 6 4 12-27 11 23 / 25-5 3 8.5 12 18-3 8 23-5 5 36 I 26 2 Total Cost of Expen- Pro ducing diture on 1000 Nuts to Average Number of Nuts CROPS OF None None — 41 10-25 t 21 7-25 8 2 07 22 42 26 87 No nuts 541 00 1.-2S0 00 — 1,112 1.175 Plots. Rs. cts. 29 27 15 08 27 60 27 54 23 65 23 57 26 61 the nearest required for 241 — 1,330 23 92 27 32 28 82 29 12 57 00 53 00 24 00 30 00 1,050 1,106 973 1,084 1,267 1,004 1,160 1,370 1.330 1,180 27 77 15 43 25 35 26 64 16 75 22 97 lö-2 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. A NOTE ON THE INDUSTRIAL POSITION OF COPRA, COCONUT OIL AND COCONUT CAKE. (BASED OX IMPERIAL INSTITUTE REPORTS.) In view of the present unsettled condition of trade with Europe the figures given below represent the last available before the war, and are reproduced ns indicating the producing capacity of the various, coconut-growing countries. These figures showing the annual export ten years ago will give a fair idea of the possibilities of the coconut industry when normal conditions of trade prevail. British Territories ; Ceylon India Federated Malay States Seychelles Tongan Islands Protectorate Fiji Islands Papua British Solomon Islands Gilbert and Ellicc Islands Protectorate East Africa Protectorate Zanzibar (value £ 216, 842) Gold Coast TriDidad Foreign Territories : Philippine Islands J a v a Quantity. cwts. 1,117,292 763,832 185,753 58,738 222,400 158,585 15,880 83,920 41,700 31,283 12,589 10,308 1,618,080 1,556,000 80,860 580,340 157,074 53,173 117,662 220,423 223,814 94,910 21,706 83,468 78,820 ... Sumatra (East Coast) Celebes Indo-Ctina New Caledonia French Oceania Samoa ... Bismarck Archipelago, German Solomon Islands, and German New Guinea East Carolines, Marshall Islands, and Nauru Wott Carolines, Pelew and Maiianrt ¡¡.lands German E a s t Africa Portuguese East Africa COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 153 The following statement shows the distribution of coconut pro- ducts of Ceylon in the year before the war. It will be noted that no less than f of the trade was with Germany :— United Kingdom India Austria-Hungary Belgium Denmark France Germany Holland lioumania Russia United States ... cwts.. 1,500 163 30,041 18,000 25,667 1,003 814,979 1,059 4,0_0 220,880 — £ 2,001 244 37,318 23,422 34,639 1,000 In 1913 Ceylon exported roughly 550,000 cwt, of coconut oil. The Cochin oil, which is more carefully prepared, fetches a better price in London. The copra exported to Europe and elsewhere is there used as a souree of oil and cake (poonac). The quality depends largely on the copra used. That prepared from imperfectly dried copra is of higher acidity and inferior quality. The oil content depends upon the thoroughness with which the copra was dried. The sundried kernels contain about 50 % oil, kiln-dried 63-65 % and hot-air-dried as much as 74 %—the yield from average copra being 62-63%. At the average European température the oil is a solid fat. By refining an odourless and tasteless product can be secured. The following table gives the range of the principal constants of coconut oil : — 99° C. Specific gravity at ... ... 0'874 15°C. Iodine value ... Saponification value Hehner value .„ Reiehert-Meissl value Polenske value Titer test ._ 8-0-10-O ... 246-268 ... S2'J-90 5 ... 6(i-7'5 ... 180 ., 21-2° C.-25-2°C. ... 1,013,486 1,200 5,600 278,174 — .... per cent ... ... ... .-. ... . . 1913. Í54 COCONUT PLANTERS MANUAL. Refined coconut oil is used in the preparation of solid edible fats, such as margarine, vegetable butters, cooking fats, and chocolate fats, as well as in the manufacture of cakes, biscuits, sweetmeats, etc. In older to obtain a fat of firmer consistence and higher melting point, a certain proportion of the liquid constituents of the oil (' coconut olein") is removed by expression. The "coconut stearin" which is left is used for the purposes indicated above when obtained from the high-grade oil, while that obtained from the lower grades is used for candle manufacture. The following are the conclusions arrived at from numerous feed- ing trials with coconut cake (poonac) :— 1. Coconut cak? forms an excellent feeding-stuff for milch cows, when fed at the rate of 4J lb., to 5 lb. per head per day. It tends to produce a firm butter and is thus especially well-suited for feeding during warm weather and to counteract the effect of feeding ¡-tuffs whicli tend to give a soft butter. The results so far as its effect on the milk yield is concerned appear to be inconclusive, and further trials to elucidate this point are necessary. 2. The cake may be safely fed to fattening cattle at the rate of about 4 lb per head per day, without detriment to the animal or the quality of the meat 3. The meal is snitable as a food for pigs, hut owing to its relatively high price compared with meals usually used for pig feeding, it is doubtful whether it could be employed profitably for this purpose. 4. With regard to the feeding value of coconut meal for horses, it has been shown that it can replace an equal weight of oats in a ration without adversely affecting the animal. POLLINATION OF COCONUTS IN MALAYA. Messrs. Jack and Sands, Botanists of the F.M.S. Department of Agriculture, writing in the Malayan Agricultural Journal of Januaiy 1922, contribute the following of interesting notes on this subject. After referring to Peteh's observations in Ceylon they remark : — In the warm humid atmosphere of the lowlands of Malaya, coconuts appear to behave differently. The length of duration of the male phase is curtailed, while the duration of the female phase wonld appear to be longer in both tall and dwarf trees ; but the most striking difference is the fact that in Malaya the female phase not only begins, but most frequently ends before, or at the same time, as the male phase, thus rendering self-pollination the rule instead of being an occasional chauce occurrence. COCONUT PLANTER^ MANUAL. l55 The results of investigations have convinced the writers :— (1) That the inflorescences on the same tree follow each other after an average interval of four days. (2) That in two eases only out of forty-three, did overlapping of inflores- cences occur. (3) That the average duration of the male phase was 21 days, with a variation of from 15-24 days. (4; That the average duration of the fe;nale phase was S days. This average seems independent of the number of female flowers on the inri >res- cence, but might be reduced over a longer period as the weather was un- usually showery, though sunny, during most of the period covered by these records. (5) That in forty out of the forty-three cases, the female phase began before the end of the male phase. (6 That in forty out ofthe forty-three inflorescences the female phase ended at the time of, or earlier than, the male phase, thus making sell-polli nation not only possible but very highly probable. (7) That the end of the female phase was never more than three days behind the end of the male phase, making self-pollination still possible in dry weather, since coconut pollen-graius appear to maintain their viability for several days under fairly dry condiciona. (8) That overlapping of inflorescences only occurred twice out of forty- three cases. The trees on which the observations were taken were approximately eight years old and fairly widely planted, but not well cared. However, shortly before the observations commenced a »pace round each tree was cleared and cultivated. In suppjrt of the facts revealed in the above table, three unopened inflorescences were bagged iu muslin bags and it was found that in each case, self-pollination was effected naturally and fruits, which still remained on the trees, were formed. Apain, three other inflorescences were emisculated immediately on opening and it was found that, though the female flowers behaved norm illy, no pollination took place and no fruits were formed, although male tlowers on adjacent trees were in full bloom. In a similar connection, it Iris been observed that odd isolated coconut trees growing even under bad conditions produce fruit so that self-pollination must bave taken place. When coconut flowers are in full bloom, at about 10 a.m., when the dew has dried up and when gentle breezes frequently begin, clouds of pollen can be seen floating away in the sunlight. In a very slight breeze these pollen clouds do not travel far owing to the weight of the pollen, but it is highly probable that with che strengthening of the breeze as the day advances the pollen clouds are carried to a considerable distance and thus cross-polliuatiou is effected. 156 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. TUE MACAPUNO COCONUT. (SINHALESE : DIKIEIPOL) The Macapuno is a sport fruit of the coconut. The w(rd MACAPUNO means full, and indicates that this coconut con- tains no water, but is nearly or quite full of a viscous, white, translucent jelly, whose texture next the shell more or less closely approaches the firm- ness of ordinary coconut meat. No means is known whereby a tree bearing macapuno coconuts can be distinguished from one which bears normal nuts; the natives recognize their macapuno trees only by the fruit they bear, The only way of tolling an unopened nut of this kind from an ordinary one is to shake it ; since it con- tains no water no sound is made. The fruits borne by a macapuno tree are not all macapuno. From a cluster containing about ten nuts about one to four may be gotten. The usual number is two. The only fact which seems to be well established is that a tree which bears a few macapnno nuts one year is likely to do so again. It is generally believed that normal nuts from a tree which bears macapnno nuts will pro- duce other trees of the .anie kind. The macapuno nuts themselves contain a well marked embryo, but will not germinate. They soon spoil if an attempt is made to store them. Macapuno bearing trees are often found grouped together in the older coconut groves, a fact which might be supposed to indicate some soil peculiarity as the predisposing es.use of the abnormal fruit. As a preliminary ftudy of the nature of the macapuno nut, and the way in which it differs from the ordinary coconut, an analysis is here presented, together with figures given by Sender (Tropische Agrikultur. Vol. 1, p 617). The percentages of protein, oil, and ash have been recalculated to a mois- ture free basis. Meat. Water 46.61 Milk, 91.50 5.41 0.82 14.00 Meat. 63.62 9.09 68.63 2.1J Milk. 95.13 1.09 U n d c t . Undet. Finn outer portion. 71.59 11.76 41.67 1,81 Soft inner portion. 90-65 10 69 18.89 3.74 Protein Oil Ash 10,79 67.33 1.81 Sender's Coconut. Normal Nut Macapuno Nut. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 157 The solid portion of the.macapuno nut is slightly richer in protein than the common nut, but is considerably poorer in oil. The soft portion of the macapuno contains more protiiu and oil th in does the milk of a normal nut. The macapun J is valuable for the making of preserves. Sometimes it is eaten fresh with sugar, but is rather unpalatable unless sweetened. When boiled in syrup it is relished by all who have occasion to try it. The existence of this kind of a variation from the normal form of fruit of the coconut raises interesting questions as to the possibility of the transmission of such a characteristic ; the chemical composition of the abnormal nuts needs to be nice clo ely studied, especially the nature of the carbohydrates and proteins they conta in ; and t h e e are physiological ques- tions as to what influences have produced the sport form and why such nuts fail to germinate.—Philippine Agriculturist. LIME IN AGRICULTURE. Lime occurs in two forms in Ceylon, viz. : as Coral Lime and Dolomite. The former is practically a pure carbonate of lime containing traces of organic matter resulting from the decay of the minute animals which produce it. The latter is a mixture of the carbonates of lime and magnesia with varying proportion of quartz or silica, and is to be seen cropping out in various parts of the tea districts. Cora! Lime is what is usually employed for manurial purposes in Ceylon either in the burned or unburned condition, and it is this kind of lime that is referred to in the following remvks :— Large supplies are obtained from coral formations near Ambalangoda. As imported from India or the Maldives, it occurs in hard lumps of irregular shape and size, and in this form is practically useless for agricultural purposes. To render it useful, it is either ground to a fine state of division and sold as ground coral, or more commonly it is burned in special kilns with the aid of wood fuel, when it is sold as " burnt or quick-lime." BURNING LIME. In burning, pure coral 1 .se; »bout 44% of itB weight as carbonic acid gas, 100 parts uf the coral yielding 56 parts of quicklime This quicklime has a strong affinity for waler, and if exposed to the air will absorb 30% of itB «eight of water when it falls to an extremely finely divided dry powder, known as slaked lime, Quicklime can bo sjaked immediately by pouring 158 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. over it the above quantity of water, great heat being developed by the chemical combination, the rise in temperature being sometimes sufficient to cause ignition of any organic matter in contact with it. When still further exposed to the air for some weeks the slaked lime absorbs carbonic acid gas and is re-converted into carbonate of lime, the same chemical compound as the original coral, but in a more perfect state of division than any grinding machinery could effect. As re-carhonatiug goes on simultaneously wiih slaking when quicklime is merely exposed to the air, slaked lime usually consists of ¡i mixture of mild carbonate of lime and hydrate of lime. LmE A PLANT Foon. Lime is of universal occurrence in soil*, and its salts are no doubt necessary constituents of all plants. LIME AND NITRIFICA TION. The nitrification of the organic nitrogen of soils, or of the various forms of organic nitrogen in manures, is brought about by the agency of various bacteria, some of which transform the ammonia compounds into nitrites and others, which oxidise the nitrites into nitrates. It is this nitrification process which renders tbe nitrogen of the soil available to the roots of plants, and it can only go on in slightly alkaline soils: the nitrous and nitric acids produced by these processes must tlierefore combine with a .base as soon as formed, otherwise nitrification ceases and the plant cannot obtain the necessary supplies of nitrogen. Many Ceylon soils are somewhat deficient in lime and show a slightly aoid reaction, in which case nitrification can only take place slowly. LIME LIBERATES POTASH. Lime by powerful chemical action liberates the mineral reserves of soils, especially potash. This potash oecuis in Ceylon soils in combination as double silicates of alumina aud potash, and these are decomposed by the lime with the liberation of potash. LIME AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. The action of lime on the phosphates of the soil is equally marked ; this solving action is of tome value, since the phosphoric acid in Ceylon soils is only available in traces to the roots of the tea plant. QUANTITY TO APPLY. As lime itself is only in a limited sense a direct food to the plant, but sets principally in action the dormant constit v.ents of the soil, its con- COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 159 tinued application in large quantities without manuring wuuld 'soon result in exhaustion of the land at least as regards its fairly easily available plant food. But the app ¡cations recommended m Ceylon of 2 to :i cwts. per acra every second or third year alter pruning are not likely to do harm in this respect, especially as the additional plant food that would be liberated for llio ten bush by its use is more than replaced by the manuring that follows tlie liming process. In temperate climates tho usual application of lime is from 2 to 4 tons per acre every S or 11 years, but in Ceylon heavier applications than 3 to 4 cwts. i cr acre aro rarely necessary. METHOD OF APPLICA TION. As a rule lime has usually been applied to buried prnnings to hasten their decomposition and destroy any fungus growth, hut now broadcasting over the stems of the pruned bushes to destroy lichen, and over the sur- rounding soil, is becoming more general, as the liméis better distributed through the soil for nitrification purposes. Experiments in other countries have shown that where liméis also applied the effect of the latter is in- creased by 10 to 20 per cent. One drawback to the application of quicklime or .slaked lime ¡sits effect on the coolies' hands and feet, especially when the weather is wet. A suit- able hand machine for broadcasting lime would be of much service. The effect of the lime on the skin can be minimised, by rubbing with coconut oil after the day;s work. Finely ground coral or stale slaked lime has the advantage over quick- lime in that it does not injure the hands, lut it.s slower action on most soils renders its use limited. It is also of no use for broadcasting over the stems of bushes to destroy lichens and mosses, hut on some very light soils poor in humus it might be employed with advantage. CEYLON LIMESTONE OR DOLOMITES. As mentioned before, these are mainly mixtures of carbonates of lime and magnesia with varying quantities of quartz. As a rule they are not generally regarded as suitable for manurial purposes, and in some oases they have proved injurious rather than beneficial, tlds being probably due to the magnesia present, as it has been found that many plants require a much larger proportion of lime in the soil than magnesia. For cocoa, however, which doe» well in the soils containing a good proportion of dolomitic lime- stone, its application might beef service. From numerous analyses of Ceylon soils that have benti under cultiva- tion foi varying periods, it would appear that the available lime originally present in the virgin soils has more or less disappeared, which is enly to he expected, as lime is the chief base removed i n t b ° drainage water. ÎGO COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. OTHER SOURCES OF LIME. Liming can, to a certain extent, be obviated by the use of manures con. taining lime. Amongst the manures co.itaining lime the most important is undoubted'y BASIC SLAG. This is a byproduct of steel manufacture by the Thomas and Gil- christ process. In Ceylon the value of basic slag has been recognised long ago, and this manure constitutes a favourite and cheap source of jwosphoric acid. This latter ingredient is required in large quantities for the formation of the stem, branches and leaves of the tea plant; but, besides this, every ton of basic slag contains approximately half its weight in lime. The following is a complete analysis of this fertilizer : — Phosphoric Acid Lime Magnesia Oxide of Iron Manganese, Alumina. Sulphuric Acid, &-c. Silica Loss on Ignition •Equal to Tribasic Phosphate of Lime 46-36 ,, The article is usually sold on the basis of— 20 per cent Phosphoric Acid and 85 per cent fineness 17 „ „ „ 80 „ THE VALUE OF BASIC SLAG. Basic Slag is undoubtedly well suited for Ceylon soils. These soils contain the phosphoric acid in combination with various elements, princi pally as phosphates of calcium, ahiminium, iron, manganese, and these phosphates are generally tribasic, insoluble phosphates, incapable of being t a k e n up by the plant, unless being pteviouly rendered available by chemical or microbical acii'in. Rate of Application.—The rate of application is from 2 to 4 cwts. per acre per annum. Loss of phosphoric acid through draining water is practi- cally nil. [For these notes we are indebted to A, Baur —"Ceylon Manure Works.y Citric Soluble Phosphoric Aeid 15-87 per cent ... Finenss ... ... .. 90-25 ,, 21-24 peir cent n 47-40 3 60 a 10-40 ,, 8-56 6-00 ,. 2-SO ,, 100-00 a COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL, USEFUL FACTS AND FIGURES. lui a. Divide the land into as many triangles as possible (the length of the base into the altitude divided by 2 is the area of a triangle) and add the areas of the triangles. b. To find the area where the boundaries are very irregular." Lay out a base line aud at right angles from the base measure offsots to the various bends and angles of the opposite boundaries. The land is then divided into approximate triangles, trapezoids, rectangles and probably squires. Add the areas of these spaces together ; the sum will be the area of the land. N. 15,—Area of triangle = length of base x altitude 2. Area of a trapezoid = Average length of the two side x base. Area of a rectangle = length x breadth. Area of a square = length of a side x itself. In the computation of acreage the easiest measurement will be links. N. B.—Link = 7-92 inches. Chain = 100 links. Acre = 100,000 square links. To reduce square links to acres point off 5 figures to the right, that is, divide by 100,000, the result is acres and a fraction in decimals. Multiply the decimals by 4 and point off 5 place? again, which gives rood and a fraction in decimals. Multiply the decimal by 40 and nnrk off 5 figures, then we get poles— METHODS OF RECKONING THE AREA OF LANDS. e. g. 1234567 sqr. links. = 12-34567 acres. = •34567x4 roods, = 1-3826S = -3826S x 40 poles. =_ 14-30720 „ = 12>cres 1 rood 14*30720 poles. S 162 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. ACRE PLOT IN FIELD. The following table may be found convenient for those who may wish to stake off one imperial acre in any plot of land :— 55 208Ja11 210 M51 19855 11 220 length be 1,452 feet then the width mist be 30 ie a Sí 726 n >» eo u )> 396 Í1 51 110 i> a363^»1 120 »i »i 1» M »5 11 5> 181J 5) 99 11 66 15 ¿14 55 Ï5 240 51 ¿140 15 660 a 990 ii >1 A square acre ia 208f feet long and 208J feet wide. Feet Apart. 1x1 1* x li 2 x 1 2 x 2 2J x 2$ 2 x 3 3 x 3 3J x%l 3x4 4 x 4 4x5 5 x 5 5x6 6x6 6x7 7 x 7 7 x 8 8 x 8 Squaro feet to PLANTS P E R Square Number of feet to plants to each plaut. the acre. 1 43,560 21 19,360 2 21,780 4 10,190 H 6,970 6 7,260 9 4,840 lui 3,556 12 3,630 16 2,722 20 2,178 25 1,742 30 1,452 36 1,210 42 1,037 49 889 56 778 64 681 ACRE. Feet Apart. 9X9 10 X 10 11 X 11 12 X 12 13 X 13 14 X 14 15 X 15 16 X 16 17X 17 18 X 18 19X 19 20 X 20 22X22 24 X 24 25X25 26 X 26 28 X 28 30 X 30 Nnmherof plants to each plant. the acre. 81 538 100 435 121 360 " 144 302 169 257 196 222 225 193 256 170 289 151 234 134 361 120 400 109 484 90 576 75 625 69 676 64 734 55 900 48 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. TREES PER ACRE. 163 The following table indicates from tho distance of planting (square ov oblong) the number of trees to the acre :— 8 10121314151617182025303540 8 6S0 546 453 418 388 363 340 320 302 272 217 181 155 136 10 546 435 363 335 311 290 272 256 242 217 174 145 124 108 12 453 363 302 279 259 242 226 213 201 181 145 121 103 90 13418335279257239223209197186167134111 95 83 14 388311259239222207194186172155124103 88 77 IS363290242223207193181170161145116 96 82 72 16340272226209194181170160151136108 90 77 63 17320256213197186170160151142128102 85 73 64 18332242201186172161151136134121 96 80 69 60 20 272217181167155145136128121108 87 72 62 54 25217174145134124116108102 96 87 69 58 49 43 30 181145121111103 96 90 85 80 72 58 48 41 36 35 155 124 103 95 88 82 77 73 69 62 49 41 35 31 40 136 108 90 83 77 72 68 64 60 54 43 36 31 27 CA TTLE NOTES, In view of the importance of maintaining the health of cattle on an estate—whether kept for manure or for carting produce—the following notes on the two most common ailments should prove useful to the planter. We are in debted for these to Mr. G. W. Sturgess M.R.C.V.S., the Government Veterinary Surgeon :— FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. This disease is both contagious and infectious, and nearly all animals may suffer from it. As is indicated by its name, the feet and the mouth are the principal parts affected. In some outbreaks the feet are chiefly affected, in others the mouth, in most cases both mouth and feet. The animal is feverish, there is constipation—if a milking cow the quantity of milk is diminished—loss of appetite, and probably a rough, staring coat. Generally a peculiar smacking of the lips is heard, there is a flow of saliva from the mouth, and generally lameness in one or more feet. The special eruptions are in the form of blisters containing a clear fluid 164 COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. and are found on the upper surface of the tongue, on the roof of the mouth, and gums. The feet are swollen and hot, aud the blisters appear at the back part of the foot and between the toes. It is a mild disease, and many anima's should not die from it if they are properly looked after. The feet especially should be kept clean, other- wise the matter penetrates or burrows down into the flesh and involves the tendons and ligaments, and even the bones, eventually causing the hoof to drop off. TREATMENT.—All the affeeted animate must be segregated, as far as possible. For mouth and feet dressing the following are simple, good and cheap:— Mourn DRESSING. Powdered alum (bazaar name " Sinakkaram ") IJ ounce Water ... ... ... 1 pint A little to be poured iijtothe mouth night and mornins. FEET DRESSING. Powdered Sulphate of Copper (bazaar name " Palmanikkan ") ... Alum ... ... Water ... ... ... 1 ounce ... 1 ounce ... 1 pint Apply to the sores on the feet twice a day. Stockholm Tar should be applied to the feet daily, over the sores. The feet must be kept quite clean by washing with water containing a little Jeye's fluid daily. Jeye's disinfecting powder may be dusted on the feet after cleaning. When the sores on the feet do not heal properly, the following dressing should be applied in addition to the above twice a day with a feather :— Margosa oil or coconut oil ... 8 parts Turpentine ... ... 1 part INTERNALLY give J or § lb. of Epsom salts daily for three or four days in a quart of congee, which will relieve the constipation and fever; or a dose of oil as a laxative. PREVENTION.—With the view of preventing infection the healthy cattle and the sheds may be sprayed with Jeye's fluid and water daily, and both healthy and diseased cattle may get 10 drops of Jeye's fluid daily in the food (or in a quart of congee) for a week. It shonld then be stopped for three days and repeated if necessary. Infected cattle must be kept in strict segregation, and not allowed to go to the same fields or drinking places as the healthy cattle. COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 165 RINDERFEST, CATTLE PLAGUE OR MURRAIN. Sinhalese—Wasangataroga. Tamil—Madu-Kotari or Madu-Pedi. Rinderpest is a very contagious disease, especially affecting cattle and buffaloes, the cause of which is not yet discovered. Sheep, goats, deer, camels, and some swine may be attacked—not man, horses, dogs, or birds. SYMPTOMS,—Fever, indicated by a rise in temperature from 101-5° F. to 150° F . or over. The animal refuses to eat, and is dull ; ears drooped ; hair erect over the back, and sometimes shivering is noticed. Breathing is quickened, and a watery or mucous discharge flows from the eyes, mouth and nose. In cows the secretion of milk is diminished or arrested. An eruption resembling scales of bran may be noticed inside the mouth. The bowels are at first constipated, but soon acute diarrhoea sets in, when the dung has a foul smell and is mixed with shreds of mucus and blood. The animal loses strength and flesh rapidly, and may die in the course of a week. The disease spreads rapidly from one animal to another. If an animal is opened after death, acute congestion and ulceration of the fourth stomach and intestines is noticed. Dogs and birds by carrying away parts of the carcase help to spread the disease. The discharges from a sick animal are highly infective. PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION.—A diseased animal must be isolated, and all cattla in contact with it in separate sheds for at least ten days from the last case. It is a good plan to spray cattle, by moans of a garden syringe, over the body with a disinfectant solution a,nd to sponge down the face aDd nostrils with the solution daily. Sheds should also be sprayed, especially the mangers and floor; walls lime-washed, and the wash should contain some disinfectant. A teaspoonf ul of Jeye's Fluid or Cyllin to each pint of water is a useful proportion for this purpose. Sulphur and Gas-tar may be burned near the sheds. Five drops of Jeye's Fluid or Cyllin may be given daily in the food to each animal for four days, stopped for two days, aud repeated. Attend, ants upon the sick must not go to the healthy cattle without washing the hands and feet and changing the clothes. Waste litter, dung, and waste food from the sick cattle should be burned. Dead animals should be buried six feet deep with disinfectant solution or quicklime put over the body. Care must be taken not to infect the water supply or food. The law requires all cases to be reported to the nearest headman or police officer. Becovery from the disease prevents another attack. leo COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. TREATMENT.—No particular line of treatment can be relied upon, but the following has been found distinctly useful in this country :— (1) As soon as the animal is noticed to be ill (it is important to give this in the earliest stage)— Turpentine, 2 tablespoonfuls (2 ounces) "\ . . Raw linseed oil or gingelly oil, 1 pint (J bottle) / This may be given with advantage to all contacts, as it seems to modify the bowel lesions a good deal if an attack follows, and it can be repeated four days later. (2) Inthecaseofanimalsnotpurginggive8hoursaftertheaboveJ to 1 lb. of Epsom Salts dissolvod in four bottles of rice congee. (3) Give daily night and morning for four days— Quinine, 1 level teaspoonf ul -\ Arrack, \ bottle > mixed. Rice congee, 4 bottles J After four days give this once a day for a week. If obtainable, J dram of Salol may be added to above. FOOD should be soft—plenty of gruel or congee, tonder grass ; no hard food should be given until the animal is noticed to be chewing the cud. Recovered animals should be kept separate from non-infected animals for a t least a fortnight after recovery, and the dung burned. PREVENTIVE INOCULATION.—There are several methods of inoculating cattle to prevent an attack. The following is the simplest :— SERUM ALONE METHOD.—In this a dose of anti-rinderpest serum- prepared from the blood of cattle highly protected—is injected under the skin by means of a hypodermic syringe and needle (syringe must be perfectly clean and should be boiled before use). It is an easy and safe method, and may be carried out by an owner himself. The protection only lasts about throe weeks, and must be repeated. Animals can remain at work. Contacts should be inoculated without delay. A NOTE ON RAINFALL. The south-west monsoon usually shows signs of setting in abont April. It becomes more dafluito in May, and increases in force towards the end of May or the midd]e of June. In August or September it continues, but with diminished force; by October the north-east monsoon shows signs of coming in ; and by the end of the month, the transition period between the south- west and north-east monsoons, tends to merge into the north-east. The north-east monsoon persists in November, December, and January, when it begins to die away, being replaced by a transition period, which gradually COCONUT PLANTER'S MANUAL. 167 gives way to the south-west in April. During this tratsition period there are often local thunderstorms, but the wind is not confined to any one direction, and it is often calm. MEAN* MONTHLY RAINFALL OF TWELVE SELECTED STATIONS. Station. January. February. March. April. tttt Colombo 3-29 Jaffna 2-14 Trincomalee 6 07 Batticaloa 9-83 Hambantota 3-35 Galle 4-34 Ratnapura 5-15 Kurunegala 3-26 Kandy 4-91 Badulla 9-55 Diyatalawa 5-94 Nuwara Eliya ... 5-60 9 1-83 4 6 1-18 2 11 2-13 4 13 3-38 6 7 1-51' 4 12 2-73 7 11 4-51 9 7 1-6-2 4 10 2 32 5 14 314 6 14 2-67 9 12 2-12 6 4-14 11 100 2 1-53 4 2-99 6 2-13 5 4-11 10 8-49 15 4-74 8 3-75 8 4-35 8 4-33 12 3-32 9 7-07 15 2-03 5 P93 5 1-84 5 3-26 7 9-38 15 12-39 19 9*26 15 6-83 14 7-51 13 5-36 16 5-59 14 Nuwara Eliya Station. Colombo Jaffna Trincomalee Batticrtloa Hambantota Galle Ratnapura Kurunegala Kandy Badulla Diyatalawa Nuwara Eliya ... 6-86 September. October, ... « Over 40 years on the average. 8-74 17 t Number of wet days in the month. Inches. Dys. Inches. Dys. Inches. Dys. Inches. Dys. Station. May. June. July. August. tttt Inches. Dys. Inches. Dys. Inches. Dys. Inches. Dys. Colombo 13-13 Jaffna 1-85 Trincomalee 2-49 Batticaloa 1 72 Hambanntota 3-19 GaUe 11-43 Ratnapura 1S-19 Kurunegala 6-51 Kandy 5-68 Badulla 4-58 Diyatalawa 4-87 20 7-31 20 6-11 18 2-78 13 O 1*57 4 3 0-71 1 0-98 5 1-30 3 2-15 4 4 1-02 3 1-27 4 S 2-34 9 1-59 7 4-25 8 2'24 6 1-26 6 5-44 19 11-80 22 3-37 Í4 5-54 19 3-25 8 3-60 10 7-90 21 8-11 19-73 8-22 9-38 2'27 2-00 12-73 tttt 21 22 13 13 21 6-05 19 24 12-91 22 19 3-97 15 22 7-41 22 6 2-05 6 9 2-27 9 23 11-83 23 9 15 15 Annual November. December. Average. Inches. Dys. Inches. Dys. Inches. Dys. Inches Dys. Inches. 5-56 17 2-91 5 469 8 2-77 6 2-31 7 7-51 18 15-02 21 5 07 15 5-98 IS 3-45 8 3-86 12 8-28 20 13-34 22 9-19 13 8-08 16 639 13 4-80 11 13-51 21 19-11 23 15-43 21 11-73 22 960 16 10-53 21 11-03 23 10-77 18 14-37 17 18-89 19 12-85 18 6-68 13 11-27 18 14-24 19 1101 17 10-48 19 10-53 IS 4-71 13 80-0 10-82 14 48-8 14-12 19 626 16-81 19 63-1 5-52 10 37'9 662 15 90-5 8-95 15 150-5 9-50 21 8-96 19 7-72 14 9-17 17 12-60 19 835 21 80-2 83-2 72-9 63-3 93-0 168 C O C O N U T P L A N T E R ' S M A N U A L . EXPORTS OF COCONUT PRODUCTS FROM CEYLON FOR 1922. (The Ceylon Chamber of Commerce Returns.) Coco- Countries. nut Oil. cwts. United Kingdom 300488 Belgium 5903 France 10C3 Germany 05455 Holland 13529 Denmark 10 Italy 17003 Spain — Norway 30416 Sweden 10424 Other Countries in Europe 119 Western Aus- tralia South Australia Victoria 943 New South Wa'es 110 Queensland — Other Countries Copra. cwts. 255659 86995 13983 143949 192712 255961 477991 — 127989 62000 4002 — — — — — Desic- Coco- cated nut Coco- Coco- Poo- nuts nuts. nac. lbs. cwts. No. 3Z833151 3004 11560498 1503710101876 295545 Coir. Bristle Mat- inAustralia... New Zealand ... United States ... Canada and New- foundland Other Countries in America ... — — — — — — 525 Egypt 50734 Africa 12570 India 2755 Straits China —80 — 311 27871 4& 3945 — 1026 — 1575 —— Philippine Islds. Japan Mauritius Other Countries in Asia — — —— — — 2460 4613 94 500 99 1900 764236 59986 30717479 — 2225521 — 1065260 4894 3974 — 588867 657 9490 — 10380 — 13742 — 56 — 4875 — — 1302 — 8000 — — — 7130968 — — — 68 974 114800 2715 —— 60 —— 418 135 740 9 9493 1007370 9142593 948480 383400 119600 1133440 125710 102050 11700 225905 339446 1863884 1190536 344619 10400 6764 32425 — 980310 Ü001 1836660 62 200 — 20000 — 255 100 — — — — — — — — — — — — — 2559 21365 150 9005 640 14648 36497 6093 1459 201 — 19 " to Dec. 31 ... 554436 1686778 86695024 114781 22087733 102630 105865 202951 Total from Jan. 1 180 -~TM 5150 — 1000 •"" 104612 Y arn. cwts. Fibre. cwts. tress Fibre. cwts. 54r98 11232 69267 600 28210 17070 4161 200 627 25 1313 — — 2191 525 — 1749 — 244 40 — 8471 — — 15 102 — 840 81 846 3253 67 4854 362 2877 9 3716 — — 35791 11064 — — 176 NOTÉS. NOTES. NOTES. NOTES. A. Acre, Plants per 162 Flot in Field 162 , Trees per 163 Advances on Coconut Tstates 9 Air, Effect of, on Coconut Plants 22 Alexandra Estate Cultivation Experiments 145 Analyses of tbe Nut and the Husk 94 Analysis of a Young Palm 93 Ant as a Carrier of PolIen 19 Arabs and Coir Preparation S Area of Lands, Methods of Reckoning 161 under Coconuts 9 Arrack, An Ounce of, Toddy required to produce 11 , Consumption of 11 , Cost of Production of 11 Ash Constituents in Coconuts 21 Caterpillar, Coconut 47 • of a Coconut Tree Aspidiotus Destructor Aularehes Miliaris Bacillis Coli Bagworm Basic Slag Bees as Carriers of Pollen Beetle, Black 92 52 El 31 Chekkus Cinnamon Soils Clearing Cochin, Drying of Copra in Coconut Cake, Feeding Trials with 154 Caterpillar 47 Cultivation, Ranges of 9 , Syste- matic, Beginning of 8 Districts, Climate of 92 Coconuts, Exports of 10, 16S Coconut-growing Districts, Chief 9, 102 Husks as Manure 90 • Oil & King Kusta Raja 7 , Expression of 30 , Esports of 10,168 , First Cargo of 8 -— • , Medicinal Value of 7 , Prices of 10 52 98, 160 19 36, 44, 45 Beetles, Natural Enemies of 40 Black Ants in Female Flowers 19 , Principal Cons- tants of 153 Beetle Blood Meal Blue-striped Nettle-grub Bone Manure Botryodiplodia Bristle Fibre Brush Fibre Bud Diseases Budrot Burning, Felling, etc. C. Candy of Copra, Nuts required for a Carbon Absorption Catch Crops Water Drains Coconut Palm, Enemies ot 36, 41, 47, 51 : How it Feeds 121 Palms near Cooly Lines 96 Products 26 Products, Industrial Position of 152 • Scale 52 Coconnts, Treament of 141 Coir Dust 31 Fibre 11 , Exports of 168 Components of Coconuts 21 Copra, A Candy of, Nuts Re- quired for 10 , Analyais of, from 1,000 Nuts 22 , Cost of Production of 10 INDEX. PAGE. PAGE. 36, 44, 45 99 52 93 31 30 30 31 31 142 . 10 126 89 148 Plants of the Cattle Manure 23, 80, 111, 145, 146 Notes 163 Plague, Treatment for 165 , Protection Against 81, 85 Ceylon, Exports of Coconut Products from 153, 168 Ceylonese and Coconut Culti- vation Food 9 30 92, 141 87 26 49 ii INDEX. P AGE. Copra, Export of 10, 168 , Oil from a Candy of 10 , Production of 10,26, 90,148 Cost of Opening Land 9 Crotalaria 97 Cultivation, Uses of 114 D. De Candolle's Theory of Origin of Coconuts 7 Desiccated Coconut 10, 27 P AGE. from 1,000 Nuts Desiccating Factory, Estimate 10 78, 84, 88, 143 for a 29 Desmotascus Cocoes 31 Disc-harrowing 23 98 20 30 60 54 60 3 i Diseases of the Coconut Palm 31 Disease, Root , Stem 33 Distances of Planting Dolomites Draining Drier Districts, Cultivation in Driers, Copra Dr. Geehens's Chart Drought, How to Combat Dry Farming of Coconuts Drying of Copra 26 Earliest known Palms in Ceylon 7 Elevations for Coconuts 9, 91 Enemies of the Coconut Palm 36, 41, 47, 51 Estimates for Opening a Coco- nut Estate 61, 69 Europeans and Coaonut Planting 8 Evaporation from Coconut Leaves 14 Exports of Coconut Products 8, 10, 168 K. Kernel of the Coconut 99, 112 15, 20, 21 Felling, Burning, etc. Female Flowers Fertilisation Fertilisers, Composition of , Mixing of Fibre, Coir , Exports of , Extraction of Field Culture Flower of the Coconut Fomes Lignosus Lucidus Foot-and-Mouth Disease Fruit Diseases 142 16, 101 17 138 139 11 168 30 22 16 31 32 163 31 Preparation of Leaf Break Die-back Diseases Drop Leaves of the Coconut 9 143 31 31 31 31 14, 124 22, 88 159 24, 98 24 27 139 126 96 16, 101 21 98 G. Grass; Evil Effects of Green Manuring Grey Blight 106, 118 85, 97 31 H. Helminthosporium incurvatum 31 Harrowing 23 Hesperid Caterpillar History of Coconuts Holing of Coconut Estates Hornets as Carriers of Pollen 19 Humus, Increasing the Husk of the Coconut Hu*ks, Treatment of Illuk, Chipping of Eradication of Spraying of Improvement of a Backward Estate Inflorescence Inland Coconuts Insect Pests of Coconuts, Minor 51 Irrigation of Coconuts 98 J. Jardine, Mr. William, on Illuk 56 Juglans Californiea Quercina 34 Kainit Labour, Cost of Land for Coconut Cultivation 82 Light, Effect of, on Coconut Plants 15, 22, 88 Traps for Caterpillars Lime in Agriculture 50 If 7 25, 111 , Method of Application of 159 Limestone, Ceylon 159 Lining of Coconut Estates 77, 83,87 Locust, Spotted 51 in Coconut Cultiva- tion 52 7 M. Macapuno Coconut 156 Maldive Coral Sails 92 Male Flowers 16 Manning Coconut Trial Ground Reports 149, 150, 251 Manure, How to Apply 113, 147 Mixtures 24, 109, 147 Manures, Composition of 138 Picking Nuts 90 Pineapple Disease 33 INDEX. n i PAGE. PAGE. Ploughing Mixing of 139 Pollination Manuring 23, 24, 80, 85, 89, 91, 94, 103, 130, 144 Malaya of Coconuts in Mattress Fibre 31 Meat of the Coconut 20 Mechanical Cultivators 116 Mineral Matter removed from the Soil by One Acre of 154 10 , Exports of 168 , Feeding Trials with 154 Porcupines 81 Potash in Coconuts 21 Salts 99 Price of Coconuts 10 Propping of Coconut Bunches 79 10 Coconut Palm Mulching Muriate of Potash Murrain, Treatment for N. 93 90, 97 99 165 Purchase Period Nephantis Serinopa Nicholas, Mr. Gerald, on Illuk 57 Nitrates 99 Nitrogen in Coconut Leaves 21 in Coconuts 21 Recovered in the Crop 132 Nitrogenous Manures 99 Nurseries 77, 83, 88, 142 Nursery, Position of the Nut in 22 Nut-fall 33 of the Coco Palm 20 O. Oil, Average Buying Price 10 , Destination of Export 10 , Expression of 30 from a Candy of Copra 10 , Formation of 15 , Unit of Shipment 10 Opening Land Cost of 9 Ordinance, Plant Pests 53 Organic Matter from a Coconut Palm 92 Origin of Coconuts 7 Original Habitat of Coconuts 7 Oryctes Rhinoceros 36, 53 Overlapping of Inflorescences 18 Palm Weevil 41 Pestallozzia Palmarum 31 Pests of the Coconut Palm 36 Phoma Cocoicola 31 Phosphoric Acid in Coconuts 21 Phytophthora 31, 34, 54 R. Rainfall in Coconut Cultivation 77 Ranges of Coconut Cultivation 9 Rats as Enemies of the Coconut 47 Plant Food, Loss of, per Coco- nut Tree Plant Pests Ordinance Planting, Distances of Out Plants per Acre 15 53 22 78, 84, 89 162 23, 24, 79, 98 17 Poonac Palm 84 Red Weevil 41 , Food Plants of 47 , N atural Enemiesof 47 36 41, 53 J65 31, 32 12, 35, 119 Rhinoceros Rhynchophorus Rinderpest, Treatment for Root Diseases Roots of the Coconut S. Salt as a Manure Samoa, Copra Drying House in 27 Sandy Soils Scale Insects Scientific Data Seashore Coconuts Seed Nuts Septoria Cocoes Shell of the Coconut Shot-hole Borer 92, 93, 95 52 II 20 83, 88, 142 31 20 54 114 103 76, 92 92, 93, 95 22 Spathe 16 Sphierella Gastonis 31 Spotted Locusi 55 Spraying Illuk 60 Soil Analysis Moisture1 SOüB for Coconuts , Sandy Spacing of Coconut Plants Starch, Formation of 15 Stem Bleeding Disease 112 31 iv INDEX. Stem Diseases 31, 33 of the Coconut 11 Stigma 17 Sugar, Formation of 15 Sunlight, Effect of 15, 25 88 Superphosphates 99 T. Tephrosia 97 Tliielaviopsis etbaceticns 23, 53 W. Water of tbe Cocoant 20 absorbed by Coconut Roots 13 Evaporated by a Coco- nut Tree 15 Weeding, Clean 22 Weevil, Bed, Food Plants of 47 , Enemies of 47 Weevils, Red, 41 Paradoxa Toddy, Consumption of , Price of required for an Ounce 31 11 11 Weight of a Foot of Sandy Soil over one Acre of Arrack 11 Tractors on Coconut Estates 23, 116 Transparent Coconut Scale 52 93 8!, 84 81 111, 145 AVright, Mr. W. H., on Illuk 56 Transpiration from Leaves Trees per Acre Trenching Coconut White Ants Wild Pigs Wood Ashes Vacancies, Filling up of S6 Value of Coconut Estates 10 Valuation of Coconut Estates 74 PAGE. PAGE- 14 163 85 X. Xvleborus fornicatus 54 Yield of Coconut Trees 10, 91 ••: w É ADVERTISEMENT. FORDSON TRACTOR STEADY, light, alert, power to spare, economical of opera- tion. Watch a Fordson Tractor in action and you will wonder how those apparently contradictory qualities of strength, lightness, power and speed could ever be combined in one unit. «T ss>% \ i **—t The Fordson's speed is available for hauling heavy load» for long distances. Its power is available for dragging, plows or disc-harrows through the heaviest soil or for run- ning all sorts of light estate machinery. We take pride in handling such a compact portable power plant. We are equipped with every facility for giving quick service for the Fordson. Further Particulars on Application. FORDSON DEALERS BROWN & Co., Ltd., mv¿|-, THE FOROSON AT A GLANCE Colombo, Kandy, Nawalapitiya and Hatton. • o R? ,~». .^ ADVERTISEMENT. EST ABLISHED IN 1875. THE LARGEST AND THE OLDEST IMPORTERS OF EXPLOSIVES. We still lead. We are the Agents for different Manufac- turers of Explosives. Regular consignments of all kinds of Giint_ricIgOf* received. Only fresh Stocks held. MINING REQUISITES A SPECIALITY. 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